THE

American Naturalist,

^tt {(llasiratd ijjagitfint

NATURAL HI5T0RY.

E. D. COPE and J. S. KINGSLEY,

Dr. C. O. Whitman, Dr. C. E. Bessey, H. C Mercer, Prof. C. M. Weed,

Prof. W. S. Bavley, Prof. E. A. Andrews, Prof. A. C. Giee,

Prof. H. C. Warren, Erwin F. Smith.

VOLTJJMK XXX.

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

THE EDWARDS & DOCKER C0.f

518 & 520 MINOR STREET,

CONTENTS.

LEADING ARTICLES.

On Heredity and Rejuvenation C- S. MiNOT I,

Lost Characteristics. A. Hyatt

Variation After Birth. L. H. Bailey

A Comparative Study of the Point of Acute Vision in the Vertebrata
(Illustrated). J. R. Slonaker ,

Some Localities for Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs ( Illus-
trated). J. B. Hatcher

The History and Principles of Geology, and Its Aim. J. C. Hartzeix,

! Constancy of Bacterial Species in Normal Fore B

Iilk. H. L. Bol-

3s of New Guinea (Continued from p. 1065, Vo]

..XXIX). G. S.

The Bearing of the Origin and Differentiation of the Sex Cells in
Cymatogaster on the Idea of the Continuity of the Germ Plasm.
Care H. Eigenmann

The Probable Influence of Disturbed Nutrition on the Evolution of
the Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte. G. F. Atkinson

Progress in American Ornithology, 1886-1895. R.W. ShcfeldT

The Path of the Water Current in Cucumber Plants. E. F. Smith.
372, 45i,

On the Mississippi Valley Unionidae Found in the St. Lawrence and
Atlantic Drainage Areas. C. T. Simpson

A New Factor in Evolution. J. Mark Baldwin 44!,

Extensive Migration of Birds as a Check Upon the Production of Geo-
graphical Varieties. T. H. Montgomery

The Plant Geography of Germany. Roscoe Pound

The Classification of Diatoms. C. J. Elmore

The Oldest Civilized Man (Illustrated). E. D. Cope

The Role of Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. J. C. Hem-

The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : A Critical Review of the Present
State of Our Knowledge. E. F. Smith 626, 716, 796,

The Meaning and Structure of the So-called " Mushroom Bodies " of
the Hexapod Brain. F. C Kenyon

Prof. Baldwin's "New Factor in Evolution." Herbert Nichols

The American Naturalist.

Fresh Relics of Glacial Man Reported at the Buffalo Meeting of the
A. A. S. G. F. Wright

Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. M. Miles

Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop and its Implement (Illus-
trated). Thomas Wilson 873,

The Geographical Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia in North

Fossils and Fossilization. L. P. GraTacap 902,

The Biologic Origin of Mental Variety, or How We Came to Have
Minds. Herbert Nichols

Editor's Table.— The Antivivisectionists Again, 32 ; Vivisection of
Idiots, 33 ; The American Association at San Francisco, 34 ; A
National University, 200 ; TheX Rays (Illustrated), 201 ; Graft-
ing Snakes, 201 ; The Destruction of Mosquitos, 201 ; Antarctic
Exploration, 202 ; The Huxley Memorial, 202 ; The Destruction
of the Seal Herd, 385 ; Credit for Work, 385 ; The Field Museum,
385 ; The Filson Club, 386 ; The New Commissioner of Fisher-
ies, 386 ; The Bestiarians Before Congress, 468 ; The Spoliation
of Nature, 563 ; The American Association at Buffalo, 564 ;
Priority of Publication, 651 ; Presidents of the American Asso-
ciation, 652 ; The Decimal Catalogue System, 652 ; The Ameri-
can Association, 805 ; The Field Museum, 806 ; Notice to Our
Contributors, 806 ; Personal Names in Nomenclature, 925 ;
Species Describing. 926 ; Nansen and the Deep Sea, 927; Survi-
val of useless Names, 1027 ; Correction Concerning a Review of
Wachsmuth and Springer, 1027 ; Dates of Publication of the
Numbers of the American Naturalist

RECENT Literature. — Petrology for Students, 35 ; Crystallography,
A Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals, 35 ; Elementary
Physical Geography, 37 ; Synoptical Flora of North America,
38 ; Natural History of Plants, 39 ; Recent Books on Vegetable
Pathology, 120 ; The Iowa University Bahama Expedition, 122 ;
The Shrews of North America, 1 22 ; Iowa Geological Survey,
Vol. Ill, 123 ; Duration of Niagara Falls, and History of the
Great Lakes, 124; Korean Games, 124; Williams' Manual of
Lithology, 203 ; The Corundum Deposits of Georgia, 204 ; Plant
Breeding, 204 ; Murray's Introduction to the Study of Sea-
Weeds, 290 ; Taxonomy of the Crinoids, 292 ; Geological Survey
of New Jersey, 387 ; Annual Report, Vol. VI, Geological Survey
of Canada, 387 ; Elementary Physical Geography, 388 ; Guide
Zoologique, 388 ; Practical Zoology, 389 ; Elementary Lessons
in Zoology, 389 ; Chats about British Birds, 389 ; Check List of
North American Birds, 390 ; The Cambridge Natural History,
469 ; Geological Biology, 471 ; Surface Colors, 564 ; The Whence
and Whither of Man, 565 ; Factors of Organic Evolution, 566 ;
The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought, 568 ; Ethics of Mar-
riage, 569 ; The Structure of Solpugids, 653 ; The Bears of North

1896.] Contents.

America, 656 ; Journey Through Mongolia and Thibet, 731 ;
Publications of the United States Geological Survey for 1893-4.
Fourteenth Annual Report, 732 ; An Introduction to the Study
of Zoology, 733 ; The Cranial Nerves in Batrachia, 733 ; Structure
and Life of Birds, 734 ; The Earth and Its Story, 927 ; A Hand-
book of Rocks, for Use Without the Microscope, 728 ; Gregory's
Plant Anatomy, 1028; Boulenger's Catalogue of Snakes in the
British Museum, 1029 ; Nuttall's Handbook of Birds, 1031 ; Edu-
cation of the Central Nervous System, 1032 ; Lydekker on the
Geographical History of Mammalia

Recent Books and Pamphlets— 41, 125, 205, 295, 390, 473. 57°. 657,
734,807, 830

General NOTRS.— -Petrography.— The Origin of Adinoles, 43 ; Notes
from the Adirondacks, 43 ; An Augengneiss from the Lillerthal,
45 ; Petrographical Notes, 45, 130, 210, 300, 395, 477, 579' 663,
744, 817, 1040 ; Igneous Rocks of St. John, N. B , 127 ; Eruptive
Rocks from Montana, 128; Porphyrites and Porphyritic Struc-
ture, 128 ; Granophyre of Carrock Fell, England, 129 ; Sheet and
Neck Basalts in the Lausite, 129; The Eruptives of Missouri,
207 ; Rocks from Eastern Africa, 208 ; A Basic Rock Derived
from Granite, 209 ; Cancrinite-Syenite from Finland. 209 ; Rocks
from the Sweet Grass Hills, Montana, 210 ; Examples of Rock
Differentiation, 297 ; Ancient Volcanics in Michigan, 393 ;
Gneisses of Essex Co., N. Y., 393 ; Volcanic Rocks in Maine,
394; Spotted Quartzites, S. Dakota, 394; The Gneisses and
Leopard Rock of Ontario, 395 ; Malignite, A New Family of
Rocks, 475 ; Foliated Gabbros from the Alps, 476 ; The Rocks of
Glacier Bay, Alaska, 477 ; Volcanic Rocks and Tufts in Prussia,
576 ; Igneous Rocks of British Columbia, 577 ; Chalcedony Con-
cretions in Obsidians from Colorado, 578 ; Basic Dykes near
Lake Memphremagog, 578 ; The Origin of the Maryland Gran-
ites, 578 ; The Eruptives and Tufts of Tetscheu, 660 ; A Nephe-
line-Syenite Boulder from Ohio, 662 ; Crystalline Rocks of New
Jersey, 662 ; Simple Crystalline Rocks from India and Australia,
662 ; The Weathering of Diabase, 663 ; Petrography of the Bear-
paw Mountains, Montana, 741 ; Two French Rocks, 741 \ The
Granite of the Himalayas, 742 ; California Rocks, 742 ; Gabbro-
Gneiss from Russell, 743 ; Geology of Point Sal, California, 814 ;
Leucite-Basanites of Vulcanello, 815 ; A Squeezed Quartz-Por-
phyry, 816 ; Mica-Syenite at Rothschonberg, 817 ; The Sioux
Quartzite of Iowa, 1038 ; The Peridotites of North Carolina,
1038; Shales and Slates from Wales

Mineralogy. — Contact Goniometer with two Graduated Circles, 573 ;
Crystallographic Properties of the Sulphonic Acid Derivatives
of Camphor, 573 ; Optical Properties of Lithiophilite and Tri-
philite, 573 ; Native Sulphur in Michigan, 574 ; Leadhillite
Pseudomorphs at Granby, Mo., 574; Celestite from Giershagen,

574 ; Minerals from the Galena Limestone, 575 ; Miscellaneous
Notes, 575, 739, 813, 934; The Chemical Composition of Tur-
quoises, 737; Alstonite and Barytocalcite, 737; Rutile, Cassi-
terite and Lircon, 738 ; Development of Faces on Crystals, 809 ;
Albite from Lakous, Island of Crete, 810 ; Fosterite from Monte
Somma, 810 ; Fayalite and the Chrysolite-Fayalite Group, 811 ;
Rhodophosphite, 812 ; Etched Figures on Some Minerals, 932 •
Pollucite, Mangano-columbite and Microlite from Rumford'

Maine, 933 ; Epidoteand its Optical Properties .'

O and Pa ontology.— On the Species of Hoplophom
ted), 46 ; The Gold-bearing Quartz of California, 52 ; Precam-
brian Sponges, 53; Embryology of Diplograptus, 54- The
Upper Miocene of Montredon, 54 ; Notes on the Fossil Mam-
malia of Europe, 131, 306, 480, 665 ; The Glossopteris Flora in
Argentina, 135 ; Geological News, 136, 217, 401, 746, 821 941 •
Bear River Formation, 211 : On the Occurrence of Neocene
Marine I 'tatomaceae near New York, 212; The Succession
of Glacial Changes, 216; The Paleozoic Reptilian Order
Cotylosauria (Illustrated), 301 ; The Puget Group, 304; The
Geological Structure of Florida, 305 ; The Glaciers of Green-
land, 311 ; Geology of the French Congo, 396; The Antartic
Continent, 397 ; Two Epochs in Vegetable Paleontology. 397 •
The Appalachian Folds, 398 ; The Ancestry of the
398 ; The Extent of the Triassic Ocean, 400 ; Phylogeny of the
Dipnoi, 479 ; Fauna of the Knoxville Beds, 479 ; Reclamation
~f Deserts, 480 ; Canadian Paleontology, 579 ; Jackson on the

Devel m

Kolqueo Island, 58;

ntoi Uligoporus, 580 ; American Fossil Cockroaches,
Comanche Cretaceous,

Paleontologia Argentina, 583 ; The Limestones «
Jump Mountains, New Jersey, 664 ; Unios from the Trias" 665"-
The Cadurcotherium, 665 ; Fossil Jelly Fishes, 744 ; Is Paleos-
pondylus a Marsipobranch ? 745 ; The Skeleton of Aepyornis
745 i Cambrian Rocks of Pennsylvania, 817 ; Structure of Uinta-
crinus, 819; Permian Land Vertebrata with Carapaces (Illustra-
ted), 936 ; Eozoon canadense, 941 ; Thickness of the Coal Meas-

Botany.— The Vienna Propositions, 55 ; The Flora of Ohio, 58 ; The
Flora of the Sand Hills of Nebraska, 59 ; Recent Botanical
Papers, 60 ; A Recent Paper on the Relation between the Asco-
mycetes and Basidiomycetes (Illustrated), 218; Polyporace^e
Hydnacese and Helvellaceae, 222 ; The Smut of Indian-Corn!
223; Antidromy and Crossfertilization, 223; New Species of
Fungi, 313 ; Alaskan Botany, 314 ; Aquatic Plants of Iowa, 315 ;
Another Elementary Botany, 315 ; Botany in the United States
Department of Agriculture, 316 ; Notes on Recent Botanical
Publications, 317 ; The Conifers of the Pacific Slope, 402 • Pon-

ular Botany, 404; Notes

of Botanical Papers, 404 ; Botany in

the Natioual Education Association, 486; Coulter's Revision of
the N. A. Cactaceae, 486 ; Botanical News, 487, 587, 1045 ; Tild-
en's American Algae, 584.; Sets of North American' Plants, 585 ;
Botany in Buffalo, 586 ; Blanks for Plant Analysis, 586 ; De
Toni's Sylloge Algarum, 668 ; The Flora of the Black Hill's of
South Dakota, 669; Trelease's Hickories and Walnuts of the
United States, 670 ; Diseases of Citrous Fruits, 671 ; Mulford's
Agaves of the United States, 671 ; The Teaching of Elementary
Botany, 747 ; The Conifers of the Pike's Peak Region, 74S ; Fern's
Colorado Springs, 750 ; Botany at Buffalo, 822; A New

stematic Botanv,

Physalis

Eastwood's Plants of Southeastern Utah

•table Physiology.— Changes due to an Alpine Climate, 6t ; Spore
Formation Controlled by External Conditions, 63 ; Germina-
tion of Refractory Spores, 64 ; Botany at the British Associa-
tion. 65 : Nitrifying Organisms, 65 ; Relation of Sugars to the
Growth of Bacteria, 66 ; Algal Parasite on Coffee, 67 ; Smut
Fungi by Oscar Brefeld, 137 ; Water Pores, 224 ; Biology of
Smut Fungi, 224; Function of Anthocyan, 226; Ambrosia, 318 ;
White Ants as Cultivators of Fungi, 319 ; Desert Vegetation,
321 ; A Second Rafinesque, 321 ; Change in Structure of Plants
due to Feeble Light, 405 ; A Graft Hybrid, 408 ; Ustilaginoidea,
408 ; A New Classification of Bacteria, 490 ; Ambrosia Once"

More

<gy.— On Bodo urinarius, 67 ; Influence of the Winter 1 \; '95 up n
the Marine Fauna of the Coast of France, 69 ; Preliminary Out-
line of a New Classification of the Family Muricidaa, 69 ; Her-
petology of Angola, 71 ; Zoological News, 71, 332, 412, 590, 708,
1052 ; The Paroccipital of the Squamata and the Affinities of the
Mosasaurida: once more ; A Rejoinder to Prof. Cope on Dr.
Baur's Rejoinder on the Homologies of the Paroccipital bone,
etc. (Illustrated), 143; Boulenger on the Difference between
Lacertilia and Ophidia ; and on the Apoda, 149 ; The Myxos-
poridia, 229 ; The Segmentation of the Hexapod Body, 230 ; The
Coxal Glands of /" ;■/•' nus :.■■•.•/•,-, r;i; Cr,,_
and Sexual Rights and Lefts Among Fishes, 232 ; Abnormal
Sacrum in an Alligator, 232; The Polar Hares of Eastern North
America, With Descriptions of New Forms, 234 ; The Cruise of
the Princess Alice, 323 ; Australian Spiders, 324 ; Autodax kc-
anus, 325 ; Reptiles and Batrachians of Mesilla Valley. New
Mexico, 325 ; On Prof. Cope's Criticism of Baur's Drawings of
the Squamosal Region of C Gray, etc. 327-

The Food of some Colorado Birds, 329; The Manx' Cat, 330;'
A Case of Renal Abnormality in the Cat, 331 ; Respiration of

Trilobites, 409; A Criticism of Mr. Cook's Note on the Sclerites
of SpiroboluS)4o9; The Sight of Insects, 410; Dr. Baur on Cope's
Drawings of the Skull of Conohphus subcristatus Gray, 41 x ■ The
Feeding Phenomena of Sea Anemones, 495 1 The Relation ofMyr-
mecophile Lepismids to the Ants, 496 ; Lipophrys a Substitute
tor Pnolis, 498 ; Blind Batrachia and Crustacea from the Subter-
ranean Waters of Texas, 498 ; Lungless Salamanders, 499 ; Ba-
trachia found at Raleigh, N. C. 500 ; The Frilled Lizard, 501 ;
The Palatine Process of the Mammalian Premaxillary 502 ■ New
Formation of Nervous cells in the Brain of the Monkey,' after
he complete cutting away of the occipital lobes, 502 ; Japanese
Leeches, 590 i The Origin of Tail-forms, 588 ; The Spermatheca
m some American Newts and Salamanders, 589 ; Sense of Sight
^Spiders, 672; Classification and Geographical Distribution of
the Nandes, 674; Arkansas Fishes, 675; Batrachia and Reptilia
of Madagascar, 675 ; The Moulting of Birds, 676 ; Florida Deer,
677; Lygosoma (Liolepisma) in New Jersey, 752; On a New
Glaucoma from Nfcw Mexico, 753 ; On the Habits of Keen's
Mouse Deer, Peromymu ktenii Rhoads, 753; The Inheritance of
an Acquired Character, '755 ■ The Hartebeest, 755 j The Heart
of some Lungless Salamanders [Illustrated], 829; On two New
Species of Lizards from Southern California, 933 ; Modification
of the Brain during Growth, 836; The Lion of India, 837 • Inher-
itance of Artificial Mutilations, 837; Fishes in Isolated Pools
943 ; On the Mud Minnow as an Air Breather, 844; The Peritol
neal Epithelium in Amphibia, 944; The Penial Structure of the
Sauna 945 ; Food Habits of Woodpeckers, 946 ; TheEctal Rela-
tions of the Right and Left Parietal and Paroccipital Fissures
947; Notes on Turbellaria, 1046; On the Genus Callisaurus'
1049 I The Food of Birds, 1050 ; Preliminary Description of a

New Vole from Labrador

molo& .-Insects in the National Museum, 72 ; On "tli'e Ginilin'-Vof
Elm Twigs by the Larvae of Orgyia leucostis„la and its Results,
74; Heterocerca of the Lesser Antilles, 152; Bot Flies of the
Horse, 153 ; Fossil Butterflies, 154 ; Origin of European Butter-
flies, 154 ; North American Aphelinte, ,55 ; Entomological
News, 155, S06, 596, 1058 ; On Certain Geophilida, described by
Meinert, 2f9 ; Life-History of Scale Insects, 242 ; The Segmen-
tal bclentes of Spirobolus, 333 ; Secretion of Potassium Hydrox-
Sn335 :TLKakC SUPeri°r Cole°Ptera' 335; A New Diplopod
Fauna in Liberia, 413 \ Domestic Economy of Wasps, 504 • Cir-

^arSrT rJUri°US InSeCtS' 5°5 ; GypSy Moth Extermination,
06 ; The Asymmetry of the Mouthparts of Thysanoptera [II
lustrated], 591 ; A New African Diplopod Related to Polyxe
mus' 593 ; North American Crambidas, 59? • New Mallow-

t^trif Eighth —^ * i ^"S^

Beetle . Back, 678 ; Proteid Digesting Saiiva in Insect Larva;.

1896.] Contents.

678 ; Weissmann on Dimorphism in Butterflies, 679 ; Notes on
the Classification of Diplopoda, 681 ; Fossil Cockroaches, 758 ;
Dr. Packard's Monograph of Bonibycine Moths, 758 ; Grape In-
sects, 759; Flower-Haunting Diptera, 760; Larval Habits in
Panorpa, 760 ; A New Character in the Colobognatha, with
Drawings of Siphonotus, 839 ; A New Era in the Study of Dip-
tera, 1053 ; Color Variations in a Beetle, 1055 ; American Nem-

Embryology.— Experimental Embryology, 76 ; The Development of Iso-
pods, 243 ; The Effect of Lithiumchloride upon the Develop-
ment of the Frog and Toad, 336 ; The Sense Plates, the Germ
of the Foot, and the Shell or Mantel Region in the Stylommat-
phora, 420 ; Morphology of the Tardigrades, 507 ; An Abnormal
Chick [Illustrated], 509; Protoplasmic Continuity, 597; Cell
Studies of Annelid Eggs, 597 ; The Tentacular Apparatus of
Amphiuma [Illustrated], 684; The Wrinkling of Frog's Eggs

Pigment in Eggs, 1060; Fertilization,

Psychology.— American Psychological Association, 156; The Cat's Fun-
eral, 161 ; Consciousness and Evolution, 249 ; Professor Bald-
win on Performation and Epigenesis, 341 ; Psychological Data
Wanted, 345 ; Physical and Social Heredity, 422 ; Observations
on Professor Baldwin's Reply, 428 ; A Study in Morbid Psychol-
ogy. 5io, 599 ; A Match-Striking Bluejay,5i8 ; Synesthesia and
Synopsia, 6S9 ; Fear Among Children, 774 ; Congress of Psy-
chologists, S44 ; Mental Action hiring Sleep, 849 ; The Mimetic
Origin and Development of " Bird-language," and the " Evolu-
tion of Bird Song," 854; A Note on Dr. H. Nichols' Paper
[Amer. Nat., Sept., 1896], 856; The Nature of Feeling, 848;
Further Comments on Prof. Baldwin's " New Factor in Evolu-
tion," 951 ; Effects of Loss of Sleep,

Anthropology.— Discoveries at Caddington, England, by Mr. W. G.
Smith, 82 ; Recent Explorations of Captain Theobert Maler in
Yucatan [Illustrated], 225 ; An Inquiry into the Origin of
Games [Illustrated], 338; Indian Habitations in the Eastern
United States, 430 ; Professor Holmes' Studies of Aboriginal
Architecture in Yucatan [Illustrated], 519 ; Mr. Kean on Paleo-
lithic Man, 606 ; Cave Exploration by the University of Penn-
sylvania [Illustrated], 608 ; Exploration by the University of
Pennsylvania in West Florida, 691 ; Pictured Caves in Australia,
954 ; Man and the Fossil Horse in Central France, 955 ; Chipped
Flint Blades from Somali Land, 956 ; Cave Hunting in Scotland,

Microscopy. — Methylen Blue,

Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 162, 258, 346, 434, 524, 776,
859, 958,

Scientific News, 87, 172, 261, 438, 526, 611, 693, 866, 960, j

INDEX.

A:T

Abnormal Sacrum i
Academy of St. Lou

436, 52;

ams, (';' I."V)
of Hoplopho:

ingdom. Synopsis 1

a ' 1 ■', H ■> dm Cope, Descrip-

ntarctic Exploration

nthropology, 82, 255, 338, 430,

and Didromy. G. Maclos-

Algal Parasite on Coffe.
Alleghenian District....
Alligator mississippiensis..

s of Fungi..

"^Mammalian Teeth.

Cope

American Academy of

F. Smith

H. G. Hubbard

Appalachian Folds B.

man, Abstractof....
Apoda

Caddington, England. H.

C -Mercer

New Species of...

Philosophical Socie
347, 434, 525, 1064..
Physiological Socie

Society of Naturalists. ,

The American Naturalist.

the Vegetative Phase

Sporophyte - ...

Augengneiss from the Zilh
Australian Realm

• 1 District .
i iati subregion

Bacterial Diseas
Eactenosis of Fc

Bahama Ej
Birth..

chologists 844

Consciousness a
l New Factor in Evolu

Physical and Social Hered-

New Fact,.i

and Reptilia from

Mexico,'

Baumhauer, Dr

H ....

^iew of Story-Maskelj

s Crystallography

dew of Tarr's Elemem
Physical Geography..

Beets, Bacterial Disea:

Bessey, C. E Abstract of Keller-
Abstract of Mu If o'rd's
Agavesofthe rnitcl State-.
Abstract of Rydberg's Flora

Barfurth, Prof. D

Barytocalcite

Basalts in the Lausite

Basic Dykes near Lake Mem-

phremagogue

Rock derived from Granite.

Abstract of Ry :

ones and Walnu

United States

Botany in Buffalo

Evolution of a Botanical

The Flora of Wyom i'ng '.'.'.'.'.'. 1 044
The North American spe-
cies of Physalis, and Re-

Nonienclature o f Mycet-

Publications 317

Notice of Robinson's Col-
umbines of North America. 5.S5
Notice of Sets of North
American Plants, collected
bv Curtiss and by Nash... . 58^
Notice of Tilden's Amer-
ican Algae.... 5s4

Lichens of Chicago [045

Obituary Notice of Pro-
Popular Botany 404

On Blanks for " Plant Anal-
Review of Bergen's Botany, so;
Review of Coville's Alask-

■- Revision

of N. A. Cetaceae 486

Review of Crattv's Aquatic

Plants of Iowa..: 315

Review of Gray's New Man- "

ual of Botany 826

Review of Gray's Synopti-

Review of Lemmon's Coni-
fers of the Pacific Slope 402

Review of MacBride's Ele-

Review of the Natural l'li"s-
toryof Plants bv Von Mari-
laun, translated by F. W.

Oliver

Review of F. W Oliver's
Transactions of Von Mari-
laun's Natural History of

Plants 39

Teaching of Elementary

stiarians before Cong 'ess!!!'.!! 468

logical Club. University of

Penna '. 1064

Laboratory of the Brooklyn

Institute 526

Origin of Mental Variety,
or How We Came to Have

Minds. H.N.Nichols 963

Station at Biscayne Bay 438

Society of Washington, 172,

1 During Sleep 849

Station in Neu Mexico'..'."
Station, Univ. of Illinois...

u." A bbott-s! '.'..".'.'"

I Birds, Moulting of

of New Guinea, G. S. Mead,
I *95. 255...

Bison Beds

Blackman, F. F

Blastomeres, Movements in

Blind Batrachia and Crustacea
from the Subterranean Wa-

Bhiejav, Match-striking

Bodington, A. A Study in Mor-
bid Psychology 510,

Bolley,H. L. The Constancy
of Bacterial Species In Nor-
mal Fore Milk

Bombvcine Moths

Bonnet, R

Bost< n Society Natural History,
162, 259, 346, 434, 524 1

Botanical News 486,587, I

Papers, Notes of

Papers Recent

Society of America

Botany, 55, 218, 313, 402, 486,

584, 668, 747, 822 1

at Buffalo 586,

at the British Association..
in the National Educational
Association

Teaching of, C. E. Bessev...
Bot Flies of the Horse

Monkey, Re-
newal of After the Complete
Cutting Away of the Occi-

Hexapod~.^;!Z!ZlZ" I
; of During

Growth J

Weight of Human

Brimley, C. S. List of Batra-
chia from Raleigh, N. C... '
On the Mud Minnow as an

Air-Breather c

Briquet, Dr. J <

The American Naturalist.

Buscalone, Dr. L..

' f*Uta$ 679

Riitshli, O

Butterflies, Dimorphism in

Fossil

Origin of

CADURCOTHERIUM
Callisaurus. E. D. Cope..

-

Canada, Exploration of Cana-

rict 1:27

Cancrinite-Syenite from Fin-
Case. E. C. Ai

Cassiterite 738,

Castorinse, American

Cat's Funeral

Cave Exploration

II. C. Mercer

....

Cisalleghenian District

Citrous Fruits, Diseases of

Classification of Diatoms. C."f.

Elmore

of Precambrian Rocks

,:;

Cleithrum in St.

Clements, F. E, Review of
Gregory's Plant Anatomy

•■>s :.

Coal Measures of Kansas

Thickness of

Coast Range Mts , Eleva-

Cockroa

58i

Ccelente

* Mesilla.Va]

>n in a Beetle :

e Study of the Point

I .'.

Champlain Epoch

Change in Sir

Feeble Eight.

Chick, Abnormal...
Chihuahuan Distri
Chinch Bug

go, Geology

•■•«.- Gray, 144,

4"- r-9. .^7

J. Mark Baldwin 158,

Constancy

in Normal Fore Milk.
L. Bollev

Cook, O. F. Description -

lobognatha with Draw

A New African Diplopod

Related to Polvxenus

A New Diplopod Fauna in

Note on the Clarification

of Diplopoda

On Certain Geophilidae De-

The Segmental Srleritesof

Cope,Er0D°."?'.://7"".V.V.V.Vi76',
Ameghino on the Involution

of Mammalian Teeth

Ancestry of :

Baur on Mv Drawings of
the Skull of Con.Urfhui /, '-
Boulenger, •

Ophidia; and on the Apoda.
Criticism of Dr. Baur's Re-
joinder on the Homologies
of the Paroccipital Bone,

Description of G!au.;>ni,>

Description of New Lizards
from Southern California...

Fishes in Isolated Pools

The Formulation of the Na-

The Geographical Distri-
bution of Batrachia and
Reptilia in North America.
Observations on Baldwin's
Physical and Social Hered-

The Oldest Civilized Man

(Illustrated)

On the Genus Callisaurus...
Paleozoic Reptilian Order

The'Penial -

Sauria

Permian Land Vertebrata

Reply to Mai
Preformation and Epigene-

Review of Boulenger's
Catalogue of Snakes in the

iseum i

Review of Lvdekker's Geo-
graphical History of Mam-
Explorations in Yucatan-
Review of Vols. I, II, III...
Paleontologica Argentina..

59.; cotvioskuria!!!!!!!!"!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!" «>i

Coxal Glands of TIn-hfhonus can-

413 CraSS-s^ %

'/«*' 2S7

-V) ^ra,",,1:I;L": „Xoi'lh American 595

Credit for Work , 18-:

332 Credner, H ^

612 Cretaceous, Comanche 582

937 Crossfertilization' ..'!...".- .. 223

39^ Cruise of the Princess Alice —

Crystalline Rocks of New fersev d6j
Rocks from India and Aus-

411 tralia 662

Crystallographic Properties of
the Sulphonic Acid Deriva-

149 tives of Camphor c7i

Curtiss' Sets of North American

Czapek, Dr. F 264

DA C T YL 0ID1TES asleroides. 744
Dates of Publication of the

Dahl.Dr. F.........t...

Dalle-Torre, Dr 88

Dannenburg, Dr 52s

Tlie'Tentacuiar

Apparatus of Amphi uma. . . . 684
Deaths :

Adye,J.M i76

Areas. L. Perrv. 264

Babington, C C 175

Barnes, Lieut. H. E 440

Bogdanof, Dr. A 613

Carter, Henrv John .... 17s

Deby, Julien.'. 176

Drummond-Hav, II. M 6^

Duges, Dr. Eugenio 175

Duvivier, A 614

Gerstiicker, Dr. Adolph 175

Goode, Dr. G. Brown

Hellriegel, Prof 26;

■ ■ ■ ■ -

Jacoby, Dr. I.. ,2s

Kitton. F 26t

Lerc^Dr. j!!!!"!".""'."'.'.".".'. 962 ]

Lilford, Lord 694

Loven, Prof. Sven 264 I

Ludy.F 614

Maru:llivr.iv. Dr. P. H 264

Miescher. Dr. F 262

Miiller, Dr. F 264

Miiller, Dr. Jean 528

Nies, F 263

Nordenskiold, Dr. Gustav

Norwood, Dr. Joseph C 175

Olliff, A. S 613

Rattlef. Prof. K 528

Sansoni.Dr. F 176

Sappey, Prof. Ph. C 614

Schadenburg, Dr. A 440

Senoner, Dr. A 264

Sickenberger, Dr. E 440

Strobel, Dr.P 176

Thompson, Joseph 263

Tief, Prof. W 962

Vesque, Dr. J 261

Wagener, Dr. G 440

Wharton, H. T 528

Whitney, Josiah Dwight,... 868

Willkomm, Dr. Moritz 263

ies '-79

1 Naturalist.

Digestion of Rhizopods

Dinichthyids

Dimorphism in Butterf
Dinocyon

Diplopod, African

Fauna in Liberia.

Diplopoda, Note on the Classi-
fication of. O- F. Cook

Diplograptus, Embryology of...

■ogeny of

Diptera, Flower-Hunting

A New Era in the Study c
J. M. Aldrich

Dipterology

Austroccidental-

Louisianian

Lower Californian ..
Ocmulgian

Deserts, Reclamation of.

Development of ]

Dream Reasoning..

Earle, C. Notes on the
Fossil Mammalia of Eu-
131, 306, 480,

15 i Eastern Subregic

of Philosophy

Psychology .".

Diegan District

Ectal Relation-

Editor's Table, 32, 200, 385, 468,

Edwards, A. M. On the "occur-
rence of Neocene Marine
Diatomaceae near New

Eigenmann, C H. The Bearing
of the Origin and Differen-
tiation of the Sex Cells in
Cymatogaster on the Idea
of the Continuity of the
Germ Plasm 265

Electric Determination of Min-

Elliott, D.g"!.'.'.'"""'""""'"'.'! S70
Elmore, C. J. The Classification

of Diatoms 520

Embryology, 76, 243, 336. 42°,

507, 597, 684, 761 1056

Experimental 76

-

;.::■.■•".; '■ \- •• ■' ." ' - ;;

Epidote and Its Optical Proper-

iuVs

Epochs in Vegetable Paleontol-
ogy- 397

Eruptives of Missouri 207

of Tetschen 660

Etched Figures on Some Min-

Euprotogonia 131, 132

441

of Bird-song 854

of a Botanical Journal, C. E.

Bessey 1041

of Mammalian Teeth 937

A New Factor in, 536, 697, 95 c

FAUNA of the Knoxville Beds 479
Fear Among Children 774

Feeding Phenomena of Sea An-

Ferns Near Colorado Springs,

A. A. Butler 7^0

1060

Filson Club 3S6

Fisheries, New Commissioner
of,

Fishes, Arkansas

in Isolated Pools, E- D. Cope

[•lies Riding on a Beetle's Back

Flint Nodules, Cretaceous

Flora of the Black Hills of South

Fossil, of Yellowstone Park

of the Sand Hills "of" Ne-
braska

Florida, Archaeological F.xplor-

Floridan Subregion 1

Flower, W. H .' m,

Food of Birds 1

of Some Colorado Birds

Formopyrine

Formulation of the Natural

Sciences, E. D. Cope

Fossils and Fossilization. L, P.

Gratacap 902,

Fossil Mammalia of Europe, C.

Fosterite from Monte Somma...
French Assoc. Adv. Sci

Function ,.,f Anthocvan

Fungi Cultivated by White Ants

Fatta, G .! ...V.V.'.VV.'.'.V.V.V.. i

GABBROS, Foliated, from the
Alps : ,

Gabbro-Gneiss from Russell, N.

Gage. S. P. Modification 'of the
Brain during Growth I

Garman. H. The Asymmetry
of the Mouth-parts of Thy-

ual Rights and Lefts

Garnet in Gneisses :

Geographical Distribution of
Batrachia and Reptilia in
North America, E- D. Cope !

'I he

Geological Commission Cape of

Good Hope 88

Geological Map of Europe, No-
tice of, 172

Geological News. -General 401, 747

Paleozoic 136, 217, 401, 821, 941

Mesozoic 136, 218, 746, 822

Cenozoic 137, 218, 402, 746, 942

Geological Society of America

168, 961

France 870

Geology of the French Congo..

of the Nile Valley 397

and Paleontology 46, 131,
211, 301, 396, 479, 579, 664,

744.817 936

aliens 239

georgianus 239

Germinal Selection 262

Germination of Refractory

Spores 64

Germ Plasm 265

Gill, Th. Lipophrys a Substi-
tute for Pholis .*........ 49S

-
Girdling of Elm Twigs by the
Larvae of Or® ia leiu ostik ma,

J. A. Lintner 74

Glacial Changes, Succession of, 216

Chamberlin. Abstract of, ... 5 r 1

■ ■" < ■ ■ ■•' 753

Glaridichthys 232

Gneisses, Bohemian 130

of Essex Co., N. Y 393

of Ontario 394

Goniometer 814

with two Graduated Circle, s" ;

Goode, Dr. G. Brown, Obituary 866

Grabner, P 961

Grafting Snakes 201

Granite of the Himalayas 742

and Limestones of Orange

Co., N. Y 44

Granites, Maryland, Origin of, 578

of the Odemvald 300

Granophyre of Carrock Fell,

England 129

Grape Insects 759

Grassi, G. B 527

Gratacap, L- P. Fossils and

Fossilization 902, 993

Green, I. M. The Peritoneal

Epithelium in Amphibia.... 044

Naturalist. [Vol. x?

Greenland, Exploring Party... 1

Grimsby, G. P

Gruner, Dr ■ 1

Gypsy Moth, Extermination of, ,

HABRODESMUS laetus .
Hacker, Dr. V

Haddon, A, C

Hah . ndrite qraphitiferu

Hall, J

Hanitsch.R

Hanns, H

Harriott* pacifica

Harpagornis

Hartebeest

HartzellJ. C. The History and
Principles of Geology, and

Hasarunhovi. 7.7.7.7 '

Hatcher, J. B. Some Localities

Horned Dinosaurs

Heart of some Lungl ess Sala-
manders, G. S. Hopkins....

Hematite

Hemmeter, J. C. On the Role

of Acid in the Digestion of

! Certain Rhizopods

Henking, II

Herbarium of the St. Louis Bo-
tanical Garden

S. ilinot 1,

■ Hering, E ...

i Herpetology of Angora

i Heterocerca of the Lesser An-

Hexapod Brain

1 Hickories and Walnuts of the

Hills, N. E. The Inheritance
of an Acquired Character...

// S ' m' '-?;-, ,v»v.'.'.'".'.v. '.".'.".'.7 77.7.

History and Principle - of Geol-

Harucll ' 177.

Hochstetter, Dr. F

Hoper, B

gion

Ib.pkins, G. S. The Heart of
Some Lungless Salaman-

.-«. I.eidv

fr'Z

ndouen

ossil in Central France.

Sumner

, ii. <;. on

Ambrosia.

Hur^Dr'' J' K

Huxley

:

:::::::::::;;::

*x Karsten, Dr.

Kathariner, L

Katzer, Dr

. J. I) MeGuire..
'Structureofrin-

Kenvon, F. C

F C. Abstract of Schmidt's
The vSense Plates, the Germ
of the Foot, and the Shell

of Lithiumehloride
lopment of

.ad F.gg.....

phile Lepismids to the Am-.
of the So-called " Mindi-

d/°
69
837

69;,

744

apod Brain

1 Igneous Rocks in British

Kienitz-Gerloff, Dr

St. John, N. B

rich s Development of Lso-

Indiana Academy of Science...

Indian Habitation in Eastern
United States. H. C. Mer-

Beds Fauna

JESiSS

Kowalevsl^ . Dr. A

Krause, R

of Artificial Mutilations \V.

Insect Sight

Insects. Injurious 505,

International Geological Con-

1 ACERTILIA

L Lambert, F. D. Abstract
of Erlanger's Morphologv
of the Tardigrades

Lankester, E. R

iOU'[ii".^'.'.^;!....\"r..e.......°..'

Laurentian, Divisibility of

Leadhillite Pseudomorphs

Jenny Jump Mountains, Lime-

Lemmings, Merriam's Revision

Jurassic Deposits of Eastern
Africa....

xx The Am
Leopard Rock of Ontario

i>oda ".'.'.'.'.'.'".'.'.'.

Lepomis....

Leucite-Basanites of Vulcanello.

Leuckart, Prof

Lichens of Iowa

Life before Fossils. C. Morris

M»i Hums

Lintner, J. A. On the Girdling

of F.lmTwigsbythel.an i

Lion of India .,*..'..'.."................

Liophrys a Substitute for Pholis.

Lithiophilite, Optical Properties

Lithiumchloride, Effect of up-
on the Development of the
Frog and toad egg

Liversedge, A

Lloyd, K. E. An Abnormal
Chick

Localities for Laramie Mam-

I.ocv. w'. A...'. .'.'.

Lost Characteristics. A Hvatt'.'

I,..uisi.miau District i

Lower Californian District i

Lungless Salamanders

Lydekker's Gee
tribationofM

r,^s»»<- '■< ••*.-

Mead. G. S. Birds of New

Region 891,

Me Hum. Neutral towards Sul-

.:/. ilun:' I'c'ruriis ""'.."""!!!.""

Mental Action during Sleep. A
Bodington

Mephitis .imerkana var. hudsen-

Mercer, H. C. Archaeological
Discoveries at Coddington,
Eng. by Mr. \V. G. Smith.
Cave Exploration by the
University of Penna. in

Tennessee ...

Chipped Flint Blades from

Somali Land

Exploration by the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania in

Indian Habitation in the

Eastern United States

Pictured Caves in Australia.
Rsview of Culin's Korean

Review' of iloini\"s 'studies
of Aboriginal Architecture

Macloskie, G. Suggestions
About Antidromy and Di-
dromy

Macrobiotic maoronyx Dujardin..

Maiden, J. II

Maler. fh. Recent Explora-

Mammalia, Fossil

rlacial '..

and the Fossil Horse in Cen-

ManxCat, Progeny of

Mccinre, c. f.' w"""Z"Z!"

McGuire, J. D. Mr. Keane on

Man

Mead, A. D

Methylen Blue

Mica-Syenite at Rothschonberg
Microscopy

Miers h."a I'..!!'.'.'.'."!].."!!!!'..'!!!!] '

Migration in Birds as a Check
Upon the Production of
Geographical Varieties. T.
H. Montgomery, fr

Migula's New C

Bacteria. E.F.Smith

as Machines.....

Mivoshi. M

National University 200

Nature of Feeling. II. C. War-

It Academy of Scien

iew Jersey..

gin of Mental Variety

Further Comments on Prof.
Baldwin's " New Factor in

Prof. Baldwin's "New Fac-

Nickerson, W. I

Nile Valley, Geology of

:^--ng Organisms

Mycetozoa. C. E. Bessey 1

lushroom '
Hexapod

Musquitoes, Destruction of...
Myrmecophile Lepismids, I

ha

A Memoir by M. P. Tl

KIAIIDES, Classification
A ^ Geographical Distribu

the Deep Sea..
Naples Zoological Station..

OCCIPITAL Lobes, Result of
Extirpation of, in a Monkey
Occurrence of Neocene Marine
Diatomaceae near York.
A. M. Edwards

Oestreich, Dr.

Oldest Civilize

Oligoporus, De
Oudermann, G

xxii The An

57°
33 2

588

135
135

942

''37
937

287

133
134
10 IS

606
5S3

':?

-1-3

[052
'303

143

n Naturalist. [y0l.

Path of the Water Current in
Cucumber Plants. E. T.
Smith 372, 451,

Orang-Outang, Cranial Capac-

554

Penial Structure of the Sauna.

E. D. Cope

Peridotites of North Carolina...
Shales and Slates from Wales...
f Peritoneal Epithelium in Am-

phibia I. M. Green

Permian L,and Vertebrata with

Carapaces. E. D. Cope

.

Marsh. ..'. '. '.'.

na'l'.'.'.'ZZ'^.'.'.'.

i> 39
944

943

753

C-.pe '■.■■■339,

Petrographical News, 45, 130,
210, 300, 395, 477, 579, 663,

Petrography, 43, 127, 207, 297,

Phil idelphia Academy Natural
Science 163,' 347, 434,

Phylogeny of Anoplotherium.
C Earle

ofthe Dipnoi

Physical and Mental Tests

Physiology and Psychology. G.

S. Fullerton, Abstract of....

Vegetable, 61, 137, 224,

/■, /.^ w^ '^'^. 3"""^Z

Pictured Caves in Australia. 11.

1040

75 l

523
156

665

479

Oxyphyre

PA CHVCAREflavogrisea

r P' ' /: i i , ^ ulan

hyprrythra

Tt'!Z\:::z :::::::::::::::::.

156

J<->52

asarasicus

-

Pigment in Eggs

i Pilsbry. H. A. Criticism of
Baker's New Classification

2' ,

69

Panorpa rufescens, Larval Habits

lian Premaxillary

! Piney Branch (D. C. ). Quarry
Workshop and its Imple-

! ments. T. Wilson S73,

Branch 873,

Pinnacle Hills, A Kame Series.

Pala^ontologica A

I, II, III. E. D. Cope

Palseospondylus a Marsipo-

1

69

Paleontology, Canadian

Paleozoic Rocks of the Missis-
sippi Basin

I Plant-Geography in Germany.
Roscoe Pound

•"lr-v

626

7;-

^.)
.96

Pan ccipital

and the Affinities of the
Mosasauridce. G. Baur

-kull .?*...' .'.'.' .'.'"".'
I Pocono Knob, Glaciation of

1896.] L

Pa<-i!od:.ya;papi<a>ia 196

•' 197

Point Sal, California, Geology

- and Porphvritie

Structure 128

rornnu; .uistralis 137

Polar Hares 234

• -

Potato Insect .....'.'.".'.".".'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' 506
Pound, R. Plant-Geography of

The Vienna Prop. ,sitioii<..' 55
••■'■ and K] agenesis... ',42
try Description of a
New Vole from Labrador.

Prema .Mary. Mammalian ;■ j

wti

Geographical Society 604

Probable Influence of Disturbed
Nutrition on the Evolution
of the Vegetative Phase of
the Sporophyte. G. F. At-

- . •
ties, 162, 258, 434, 524, 776,

vineriean Ornithol-
ogy 1886-1895. R. W. Shu-

feldt 357

Propaheotherium 134

Protection of Game in U. S 869

Proteid Digesting Saliva in In-
sect LarvtE 678

nic Continuity 597

boa of the Upper

Eocene of France 480

Psychology, 156, 249, 342, 422,

^ 5<o)599, 689, 774, 844 848

I Pterodesmidse

QPterorhvtis Conrad '.
Puget Group, Extent of
Group, Flora of
UARRY Workshop and its
Implements ! 873,

j Quartz, Gold bearing, of Cali-

Quartzites, Spotted in South

RANKIN, W.B
Raupenhme

Raymond, R. DeB

Arctogean 889,

Recent Books and Pamphlets,

41, 125, 205, 295, 39o, 473.

i 5/0, 657, 734, 807, S30

Recent Literature, 35, 120, 203,
290, 387, 469, 564, 653, 731,

„ ?27

Regions:

Holarctic .

Medicolumbian ....S91,

Reh, Dr. L

Reid, H. F

Reinitzer, I)r 176,

Relative Efficiency of Animals

as Machines. M. Miles

Relation of Sugars to the

Growth of Bacteria

Relics of Glacial Man Reported

at the Buffalo Meeting

Reptilia 1

Reptiles and Batrachians of

Mesilla Valley, New Mex-

Retzius, G '.'.'.'.'".".'.'.'.' .'.'.".'.'.7.7.'.".'. 262,"
Reviews :

eport for 1894

Jersey

Annual Report, Vol. VI,
Geological Survey of

a. o r. i.

American Birds

Bailey's Plant Breeding. C.

Bergen's High School

iv The Ami

Botany. C. E. Bessey

Bernard's Structure of Sol-

pugids. J. S. Kingsley

Boulenger's Catalogue of
Snakes in the British Mu-
seum. E. D. Cope I

Cambridge Natural H i s -

tory, Vol V

Catkins' Lichens of Chic-
ago. C. E. Bessey i

Chamberlain's Child and
Childhood in Folk-Thought.

H. C.Warren

Chats About British Birds..
Cope's Factors of Organic

Catacete. C. E. Bessey

CovihVs Alaskan Botany.

Cram's A(j'u itic Plants of

Iowa. C. E. Bessey

Culin's Korean Games

De Toni's Sylloge Algorum.

De Alton Saunders

Forbes' Report, 1803-4

Gray's New Manual of Bot-

Gregorv's Plant Anatomy.

F.C.Clements ]

Guide Zoologique

lucation of the

Hallier's'prestl
E. F. Smith ...
Headley's Structure and

Life of Birds

Che Earth and
and its Storv. W. S. Bay-

Holmes"\rch'e'io-i'cai
Studies among the Ancient
Cities of Mexico. H. C

Iowa Geographical Survey,

Iowa ["niversity Bahama

Kemp's Handbook of
Rocks, for I—
Microscope. \V. S Bavlev.
King's Corundum Deposits

of Georgia

Lemmon's Conifers of the

Pacific slope. C. E. Bessey.

introduction to

th e Study of Zoology

MacBrides Elementary Bot-
any. C. E. Bessev. .".

Marshall and Hurst's Prac-

Naturalist. [Vol. XI

tical Zoology -

Merriam's Bears of North

Merriam's Shrews of North

Murray's Introduction to
the studv of Sea-Weeds.

Lessons in Zoology

Nuttall's Handbook of

Packard's Monograph of
Bombycine Moths

Geological Survey for 1893-

Recent Books on Vegetable

Pathology

Rhoads's Mimetic Origin
and Development of Bird-
language. C. A. Witchell.
Robinson's Columbines of
North America
Rockhill'sjournevthrou-h

Mongolia and Thibet

Spencer's Duration of Ni-
agara Falls and History of

the Great Lakes

Stockham's Ethics of Mar

riage

Strong's Cranial Nerves of

Amphibia

Tarr's Elementary Phvsical

Geography

Tilden's American Algse, C

■■■ceand Whith-
er of Man

Wachsmuth and Springer's
Taxonomy of the Crinoids,

C R. Keyes

Washmuth and Springer's

Crinoidea ]

Walcott's Cambrian Rocks
of Pennsylvania, Abstract

C Gill ."..V '....'.

Williams' Geological Biol-

.nuaUf Lithob
o<> \\ s P.ulev

Rhizopods, Digestion of

Rhoads S. N. On the Habits of

The Polar Hares of Eastern
North America, with < It--
sriptions of New Forms

Si 2
297

47 7

61°
723

~iz

Z'5
175

594

905
223

$

»75

060
613
; ;

41°

j :,2

415

495

Segmentation of Frog's Eggs...
Segmental Scleriu-s oi Spiroho-

761

332

744

Rock Differential

of,

Selenka, F

Setciieli"\v"\

of Glacier Bay, Alaska

G5

Sexual Rights and Letts ..

Shear, C. L. Review of Recent
Papers on the Relation be-
tween the Ascomyctes and

from the Sweet < irass Hills,

Rock Powder, result of melt

ng.

Certain Rhizopods, J
Hemmeter

lc.

Shio. .u.i, M

Shrews of North America

Shufel.lt, R.W Progress in Am-
erican Ornithology, 1S86-

Sight, Sense of, in Spiders

^sZZZZZZZZ

Simpson. C. T. On the Missis-
sippi Valley Unionidae
found in the St. Lawrence
and Atlantic Drainage

122

IS

Rot of Sugar Beets

Sa!SU;t:::::::::

55

1 0!

159

- . :■ - - . ...

Effects of Loss of, H. C

'^tosa

Slonaker, J. K. A Comparative
Study of the Point of Acute

r, n C

>pe.

M

Smirnow, Dr. A

Smith, E. F. Abstract of Bach-
man's Spore Formation

ditions.. .'

■ :. H

63

: re ot Mont Jov

PoresaCt0fXeStl ' "^ ^^

',46,

438, 526, 611, 693, 866,.
Spiroboltts

berdie Bedeutung <les Zuck-

Bakterien

Bacterial Diseases in Plants

626,

Changes due to an Alpine

Change in Structure of
Plants due to Feeble Light
A Graft Hybrid.

66

7i6

..T: :::::: :::::.

, 'Ceding "l

6r
318

Seal Herd, Dest

Note on Henslow's Desert

The American Naturalist.

decent
'athology, Notice c

Tauber, Dr. P

Teeth (Human) Reduction of...

Testudinata, Ancestry of. E.
Tetragophosphite

ew of Die Pestkrank-

Review of Migula's
Classification of Bacter
White Ants as Cultivs

Thomsonite...
Thymoquinot

Sonoran subregion...
Species, Describing,.
Spermatheca in some

Sponges, Pre-Cambriau. .

ore Formation..

223 Todd, J. E._

sr

Trimen,eR....!!^
Triphilite, Optical

s of Marriage. 569 7«/vr

Sugar Loaf lit,

Uintacn

Synesthesia and Synopsia.

Synaptomys, Revision of....

Synopsia

Szymonowicz, Dr

TAIL-FORMS, Origin of.
Tapirs, Fossil

Tapirulus, Affinities of

Tardigrades, Morphology o

National Academy

Variation after Birth. E. H.
flex as an Aid in Mental

Vice-Presidents of the Amer-
ican Association. 652

positions. R. Pound. 55

~ '.- <>f . 694

!' 52S

Vogt, C. 262 !

Volcanic Activity in New Bruns-

Ma'iVe" .'.'.'.'.".! !'.!!!.'."'. t°4

in Michignn 393

Rocks and Tuffs in

Prussia 576 j

\'ole New) from Labrador 105 1

Von Kupffer, K. 961 j

Von Lenhossek, M 52S

■k, H. Ph 613

Von Sandberger, F 439 j

F 52S

VonZittel, K. A 262

Vuillemin, Dr. P 528 j

WADE, W. Inheritance of

Artificial Mutilations 837

* R 612 j

D 4,0

:i 439

M 88 !

1 * • ' II 0 Effects of Loss

of Sleep 1061

Fear Among Children 774 |

The Nature of Feeding 948

Review of Halleck's Edu-
cation of the Central Nerv-
ous System 1032

hesia and Synopsia.. 689
F. L- A Case of

cfu. n0.n^!ty...!.n...a 33I I

Wasps, Domestic Economy of.. 504 I

■ ;- ..... 528

Butterflies 679 I

Westerasubrenon roi-

Whitney, Josiah Dwight* Obit-

>2S

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

ON HEREDITY AND REJUVENATION.1

By Charles Sedgwick Minot.2

The subject of this article is presented under the following
sections :

I. The Formative Force of Organisms.

II. The Conception of Death.

III. A Comparison of Larva and Embryo.

IV. Concluding Remarks.

The first section is not new, but a reproduction without
change, of an article published in Science, July 3d, 1885. As
this article has not become generally known, and yet is an es-
sential link in the chain of reasoning, I venture to repeat it-
Though written in 1885, I consider that to-day it is still suffi-
cient to disprove Weismann's theory of germ plasm. Weis-
mann has not considered this article, otherwise, from my
point of view, he could not have maintained his theory.

' This article is translated from one which appeared in the Biologisches Cen-
tralblatt, Vol. XV, Page 571, August 1st, 1895. A few trifling changes have

• the Advancement of Science, at its recent Springfield meeting,
e Harvard Medical School.

2 The American Naturalist. [January,

The views which I then defended have been recently
brought forward in almost parallel form, and without essen-
tial additions, by O. Hertwig (Zeit-und Streitfragen der Biologic,
I, Heft, D. 32-53) as arguments against the views of Weis-
mann.

The second section is also directed against Weismann, for
it attempts to replace his conception of death by one more

The third section is intended to make the significance of re-
juvenation clear, and at the same time, by a comparison of
larvse and embryos, to demonstrate a law of heredity which
has not been hitherto recognized.

The Formative Force of Organisms.

The assertion is safe, that the majority of biologists incline
at present to explain the forming of an organism out of its
germ upon mechanical principles. The prevalent conception
is that the forces of the ovum are so disposed that the evolu-
tion of the adult organism is the mechanical result of the pre-
determined interplay of those forces. The object of the pres-
ent article is to point out that this conception is inadequate,
and must be at least supplemented, if not replaced, by another
view, namely, that the formative force is a generally diffused
tendency, so that all parts inherently tend to complete by
their own growth and modification the whole organism— a
fact which finds a legitimate hypothetical expression in Dar-
win's Doctrine of pangenesis. The nature of the view here
advanced will become clearer upon consideration of the evi-
dence upon which it is based, and which is adduced below.
The evidence that the formative force is diffused through all
parts falls under three heads : 1. The process of regeneration
in unicellular and multicellular bionts ; 2. The phenomena of
of the duplication of parts ; 3. All forms of organic reproduc-
tion. Let us briefly consider these categories.

1. Regeneration.— All living organisms have, to a greater or
less degree, the ability to repair injuries ; indeed, we must re-
gard the power of regeneration as coextensive with life, but

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 3

the capacity varies enormously in the different species. In
man the power is very small, though more extensive than is
generally realized. Among Annelids are species, the individ-
uals of which may be divided in two, and each piece can re-
generate all that is needed to render it a complete worm. We
sometimes see a small fragment of a plant, a single switch of
a willow, for instance, regenerate an entire tree, roots, trunk,
branches, leaves, flowers, and all. In the last instance a few
cells possess a latent formative force, which we recognize by
its effects, but cannot explain. We perceive, therefore, that
each individual has, as it were, a scheme or plan of its organ-
ization to which it strives to conform. As long as it actually
does so, the cells perform their routine functions ; but when
an injury destroys or removes some portion, then the remain-
ing cells strive to conform again to the complete scheme, and
to add the missing fragment. The act of regeneration of lost
parts strikes the imagination almost as an intelligent pursuit
by the tissues of an ideal purpose.

Our knowledge of the regeneration power has recently re-
ceived important extensions through the noteworthy experi-
ments of Nussbaum3 and Gruber,4 who have demonstrated, in-
dependently, the possibility of dividing unicellular animals
so that each piece will regenerate the missing parts. In this
manner the number of individuals can be artifically multi-
plied. For example : Nussbaum divided a well-isolated Oxy-
tricha into two equal parts, either transversely or longitudi-
nally, and found that the edges of the cut became soon sur-
rounded with new cilia. Although some of the substance of
the body, or even a nucleus, was lost through the operation yet,
by the following day, the two parts converted themselves into
complete animals with four nuclei and nucleoli (Nebenlcerne)
and the characteristic ciliary apparatus. " The head piece has
formed a new hind end ; the right half, a new left half." The

3M. Nussbaum, Ueber spontan uml h(,>*t *'■ 7AlU:\l» -/, Sitzungsb. d. nei-
derrh. Ges. f. Nat. u. Heilkunde, Bonn, 15, Dez., 1884.

* A. Gruber, f, ■',. r boiMlirh T> <hn, , >,, ; hnvgnnen, Biol. Centralblatt, Bd. IV,

4 The American Naturalist. [January,

newformed duplicate Infusoria multiplied subsequently by-
spontaneous division. From one Oxytrachia cut in two, Nuss-
baum succeeded in raising ten normal animalcules, which
subsequently all encysted. After an unequal division, the
parts are both still capable of regeneration, but parts without
a nucleus did not survive, which suggests that the formative
energy is in some way bound up with the nucleus. But nu-
cleate pieces may break down. Thus, all attempts at artifi-
cial multiplication of the multinucleate Opalina failed, al-
though the division of ActinosphaBrium had been successfully
made by Eichhorn as long ago as in the last century. Pelo-
myxa palustris has been successfully divided by Greef, and
Myastrum radians by Haeckel.

Gruber (I c, p. 718) describes his experiments with Stentor :
" If one divides a Stentor transversely through the middle,
and isolates the two parts, one finds on the cut surface of the
hind part, after about twelve hours, a complete peristomial field
with the large cilia and buccal spiral newly formed. On the
other hand, the piece on which the old mouth is situated has
elongated itself backwards, and attached itself in the manner
peculiar to these Infusoria. If one has made a longitudinal
section, so that the peristom is cut in two, then the peristoms
both complete themselves and the lateral wounds heal over.
I have repeatedly separated, by transection, pieces consider-
ably less than half of the original Stentor, and these have also
regenerated themselves to complete animals." Gruber, too,
observed that artificially divided Infusoria were capable of
subsequent spontaneous multiplication. If the section is not
very deep, there may arise double monsters ; but here, just as
in spontaneous divisions, as long as there remains an organic
connecting band, the two parts act as one individual, showing
thatthe nervous actions are not restricted to determined
paths. Gruber also adds that two divided pieces may be re-
united if brought together quickly enough. The observation
thus briefly announced is of such extreme interest and impor-
tance that the publication of the full details of the experiment
will be eagerly awaited. Gruber adds that at present we can-

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 5

not go much beyond the proof of existence, to a high degree,
of the regenerative capacity in unicellular organisms, He also
makes the significant observation that in the Protozoa, we
have to do foremost with changes of function ; in the Metazoa,
with growth also.

2. Duplication of parts. — In these anomalies we find an or-
gan which, although an extra member, yet still conforms to
the type of the species. For example : a frog is found with
three posterior limbs ; dissection proves the third leg to agree
anatomically with the typical organization of the frog's hind
leg. In determining the importance to be attributed to this
evidence, it should be remembered, on the one hand, that
these instances are by no means unusual ; on the other, that
the agreement with the normal structure is not uniform.

3. Asexual reproduction. — When a species multiplies by fis-
sion of any kind, we must assume that each part, after divis-
ion, possesses the formative tendency, since we see it build up
what is necessary so complete the typical organization of the
individual. Again : a bud of a hydroid or polyzoon, although
comprising only a small part of the body, is equally endowed
with this uncomprehended faculty. In pseudova we reach the
extreme limit ; in aphis, for example, the parent gives off a
single cell, the capacity of which, to produce a perfect and
complicated individual, fully equals the like capacity of a hy-
droid bud or of half a worm.

The evidence forces us to the conclusion that the formative
force or cause is not merely the original disposition of the
forces and substances of the ovum, but that to each portion of
the organism is given : 1. The pattern of the whole organism; 2.
The partial or complete power to reproduce the pattern. The itali-
cized formula is, of course, a very crude scientific statement, but
it is the best which has occurred to me. The formative force,
then, is a diffused tendency. The very vagueness of the ex-
pression serves to emphasize our ignorance concerning the
real nature of the force. In this connection, I venture to in-
sist upon the fact that we know little or nothing concerning
any of the fundamental properties of life, because I think the

6 The American Naturalist. [January,

lesson of our ignorance has not been learned by biologists.
We encounter, not infrequently, the assertion that life is
nothing but a series of physical phenomena ; or, on the other
hand, what is less fashionable science just now, that life is
due to a special vital force. Such assertions are thoroughly
unscientific ; most of them are entirely, the remainder nearly
worthless. Of what seems to me the prerequisites to be fulfilled
before a general theory of life is advanced, I have written
elsewhere.5

II. Conception of Death.

My thesis reads : There are two forms of death. These are
first, the death of the single cells ; second, the death of multi-
cellular organisms. Death in the one case is not homologous
with death in the other.

Weismann assumed the complete homology of the two
forms of death. Without this assumption, his hypothesis of
the immortality of unicellular organisms falls to the ground
and with it falls the entire superstructure of his speculations
upon germ plasm. Oscar Hertwig (Zeit und Strcitfragen, Heft
1) has already expounded, very clearly, the dependence of the
theory of germ plasm upon the hypothesis of unicellular im-
mortality ; it would, therefore, be superfluous to discuss it
here.

The conception of the biological problem of death, to which
I still hold, was formed several years before Weismann's first
publication, which appeared in 1882, with the title, " Ueber die
Bauer des Lebens." He has further defended his view in his
article, " Ueber Leben und Tod " (1884), and has steadfastly ad-
hered to it since. In the years 1877-1879 I published my
theoretical interpretation of the problem.6 This interpretation
became the starting point of elaborate special investigations,
by which I endeavored to advance the solution of the problem
and, in fact, observation and experiment have confirmed the

5C S. Minot, On the conditions to be filled by a theory of life, Proc Amer.
Assoc. Adv. Sc., XXVIII, 411.
6 Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XIX, 167 ; XX, 190.

1896.] On Heredity and Bejurt)iat!o)i. 7

original thesis.7 Moreover, in an especial short article I have
directed attention to the fact that Weismann has not consid-
ered the essential issue of the problem. The difficulties
pointed out still remain, and, according to my conviction, can-
not be removed. Weismann passes these difficulties by and
carries out his speculations without first securing a basis for
them. His method is illustrated by the following quotation :
" I have, perhaps, not to regret that I cannot here discuss the
article referred to (Minot's Article in Science, Vol. IV, p. 398) ;
nevertheless, almost all objections which are there made to
my views are answered in the present paper." (Weismann,
Zur Frage nach der Unsterblichkeit der Einzelligen, Biol.
Centralbl., IV, 690, Xachschrift). I have studied the paper
with conscientious care and cannot admit that the objections
have been answered. On the contrary, I maintain now, as
formerly, the judgment : " He misses the real problem."
For this reason I hold it to be unnecessary to discuss the de-
tails of Weisman's exposition, because — if I am right— he has
not considered the actual problem of death at all. " He
misses the real problem." The following reasoning leads to
this decision : Protozoa and Metazoa consist of successive gen-
erations of cells ; in the former the cells separate ; in the lat-
ter they remain united ; the death of a Protozoa is the anni-
hilation of a cell, but the death of a Metazoon is the dissolu-
tion of the union of cells. Such a dissolution is the result of
time, that is to say, of the period necessary to the natural
duration of life, and we call it, therefore, "natural death."
Moreover, we know that natural death is brought about by
gradual changes in the cells until, at last, certain cells, which
are essential to the preservation of the whole, cease their func-
tions. Death, therefore, is a consequence of changes which
progress slowly through successive generations of cells. These
changes cause senescence, the end of which is given by death.
If we wish to know whether death, in the sense of natural death,
properly so called, occurs in Protozoa or not, we must first pos-

' Journal of Physiology, XII, and Proc. A. A. A. S., XXXIX, (1890).

8 The American Naturalist. [January,

sess some mark or sign, by which we can determine the occur-
rence or absence of senescence in unicellular organisms.

Around this point the whole discussion revolves. Certainly
a simpler and more certain conclusion could hardly* be drawn
than that the death of a Metazoon is not identical, i. e., homol-
ogous with the death of a single cell. Weismann tacitty as-
sumed precisely this homology, and bases his whole argument
on it. In all his writings upon this subject, he regards the
death of a Protozoon as immediately comparable with the
death of a Metazoon. If we seek from Weismann for the
foundation of this view we shall have only our labor for our
pains. Starting from this view Weismann comes to the
strictly logical conclusion that the Protozoa are immortal.
This is a paradox ! In fact, if one compares death in the two
cases, from Weismann's standpoint, then we must assume
a difference in the causes of death, and conclude that the
cause in the case of the Protozoa is external only, while in
the Metazoa it is internal only, for, of course, we may leave
out of account the accidental deaths of Metazoa. If we ap-
proach the problem from this side, we encounter the following
principal question : Does death from inner causes occur in
Protozoa? Weismann gives a negative answer to this ques-
tion, with his assertion that unicellular organisms are immor-
tal. The assertion remains, but the proof of the assertion is
lacking. In order to justify the assertion, it must be demon-
strated that there does not occur in Protozoa a true senescence,
showing itself gradually through successive generations of
cells. Has Weismann furnished this demonstration ? Cer-
tainly not. He has, strictly speaking, not discussed the sub-
ject. It is clear that we must first determine whether natural
death from senesence occurs in Protozoa or not, before we can
pass to a scientific discussion of the asserted immortality of
unicellular beings. The problem cannot be otherwise appre-
hended. Weismann has not thus conceived it, therefore the
judgment stands against him : he misses the real }>roblem.

Senesence has been hitherto little investigated ; for many
years I have been studying it experimentally and have tried

Lost Characteristic

to determine its exact course. My paper, " Senesence and Re-
juvenation," affords evidence of new facts proven by these ex-
periments. I believe I have thus won the right to oppose my
view to the pure speculations of Weismann.
( To be continued.)

LOST CHARACTERISTICS.
By Alpheus Hyatt.

Dr. Minot having noticed, in the translation of his article
*' On Heredity and Rejuvenation," an accidental omission of
quotation of work done by paleontologists on the loss of char-
acteristics in the development of animals, has most courteously
asked me to follow his essay by an article dealing with this
question. I gladly avail myself of this opportunity on account
of the advantages offered where similar subjects can be con-
secutively treated from different points of view, and because
Dr. Minot's article, on account of his great and deserved repu-
tation in embryology, will reach the students of existing bio-
logical phenomena, and perhaps induce some of them to read
a connected publication.

The loss of characteristics is not so readily observed by a
student of the biology of existing animals or neobiologist, as
by the paleobiologist or student of fossils, because the latter
necessarily deals with series of forms often persisting through
long periods of time, and is led, especially if he follow more
recent methods of research, to study these in great detail. The
observer of these remains is not, as is falsely imagined, limited
to fragments, but can and does work out of the hard matrix
the external skeletons or shells even of embryos, and can, in
the corals, brachiopoda, mollusca, echinodermata and even in
protozoa, follow the entire life history of these parts in the in-
dividual. He has also the further advantage of availing him-
self of the knowledge amassed by the neobiologist and neoem-
bryologist, the works of % Cope, Beecher, Schuehert, Gurley,

10 The American Naturalist. [January,

Jackson and others, written in the last thirty years in this
country and in Europe. The new school of Paleobiology also
insists upon the close study of series of forms and rejects the
methods usually pursued by the neoembryologist, who, as a
rule, selects his objects of study and pursues his comparisons
upon the old basis of comparative anatomy and with but little
regard to the serial connections of forms. The importance of
studying the seriality in structure of the members of the same
group, those gradations, which lead from one variety to
another, one species to another, one genus to another, until
they may end in highly differentiated and often degraded off-
shoots, with as strange and unique developments as they have
adult characters, seems not, as yet, to have attracted the atten-
tion of the students of development among recent animals as
it has that of paleobiologists. The prevalent modes of study
'of living types has consequently led to noticing the phenomena
of omission of hereditary characters only in an isolated way, and
from the time of Balfour's " Comparative Embryology " these
omissions occurring in the embryo have been named abbrevia-
tions, shortenings and omissions of development, and various
attempts have been made to explain them upon more or less
general grounds of inference. Prof. Cope and the writer and
some other authors have been for a number of years publishing
observations upon this class of phenomena under the title of
the law of acceleration, asserting that in following out the his-
tory of series in time, or of existing series in structure, there
was observable a constant tendency in the successive members
(species, genera, etc.) of the same natural group to inherit the
characters of their ancestors at earlier stages than those in
which they appeared in these ancestors. That as a corollary
of this tendency, the terminal forms eventually skipped or
omitted certain ancestral characteristics, which were present in
the young of the preceding or normal forms of the same series,
and also in the adult stages of development of more remote
ancestors of the same genetic stock or series. This law has
since been independently rediscovered by several other nat-
uralists, notably Wiirtemburger in Germany, and Buckman in
England. The writer has lately christened this as the law of

1896.] Lost Characteristics. 11

Tachygenesis1 in allusion to the general character of the phe-
nomena.

In a late paper,2 the writer reviewed Prof. Cope's and Haeck-
el's views of this law, and contrasted them with his own, and it
seems advisable to give these remarks again in this connection.

Professor Cope has given the fullest explanation of this law,
but has joined it with retardation. Thus, from his point of
view, if I rightly understand him, inexact parallelism in de-
velopment or failure to reproduce any hereditary characteristics
is due to a tendency which appears in organisms and works in
parallel lines with acceleration, the law being in his concep-
tion of a double nature. Thus he says, on page 142 of his
" Origin of the Fittest," " The acceleration in the assumption
of a character progressing more rapidly than the same in
another character, must soon produce, in a type whose stages
were once the exact parallel of a permanent lower form, the
condition of inexact parallelism. As all the more comprehen-
sive groups present this relation to each other, we are com-
pelled to believe that acceleration has been the principle of
their successive evolution during the long ages of geologic
time. Each type has, however, its day of supremacy and per-
fection of organism, and a retrogression in these respects has
succeeded. This has, no doubt, followed a law the reverse of
acceleration, which has been called retardation. By the in-
creasing slowness of the growth of the individuals of a genus,
and later and later assumption of the characters of the latter,
they would be successively lost. To what power shall we
ascribe this acceleration by which the first beginnings of
structure have accumulated to themselves through the long
geologic ages, complication and power, till from the germ that
was sea rcely born into a sand lance, a human being climbed the
complete scale, and stood easily the chief of the whole." And
again, on page 182 of the same work : "Acceleration signifies
addition to the number of those repetitions during the period

'"Phylosenv of an Acquired Characteristic." Proc. Am. Phil. Soc Philadel-
phia, XXXII, Xo. 143.

2 " Bioplastology and the Related Branches of Biologic Research." Proc. Bost.

So.-. Nat' Hi-:.. XXVI, p. 77-81.

12 The American Naturalist. [j n

preceding maturity, as compared with the preceding genera-
tion, and retardation signifies a reduction of the numbers of
such repetitions during the same time." Thus, from Cope's
point of view, tachygenesis is the law of progression, and re-
tardation is the law of retrogression, and they are both essen-
tial parts of his law of acceleration and retardation.

Haeckel alludes in general terms to the law of abbreviated
development in his " Morphologie der organismen," and in his
"Anthropogenie," published in 1874, substantially agrees with
Cope in his view of the law and uses the term " palingenesis "
for the exact repetition of characteristics which occurs in the ear-
lier and simpler forms of a phylum and " coenogenesis " for the
abbreviated or highly accelerated cases of inexact parellism of
the young of more complex forms with their ancestors. There
is, however, an objection to this mode of using the last term
which I mentioned also in writing the paper quoted.3

3 During the writing of this paper I took from Cope the statement made above,
although unable to find any verification of it in HaeckePs Anthropogenie (Island
2d editions both dated 1874), but, since the above was in press, I obtained a copy
of the 4th edition (1891) and the reading of this has caused me to entirely alter
my opinion with regard to HaeckePs opinions. He certainly had at that time,
1 391, what seems to me erroneous and inadequate view of the nature and action
of the laws of tachygenesis and <ras>- ir

Haeckel states (Anthropogenie, 4th edition, Leipzig, p. 9, 1891) that ''Palin
genetische Processe oder keimesgeschichtliche Wiederholnngen nennen wir alle
jene Erscheinungen in der individuellen Entwickelungsgeschichte, welche durch
die conservative Vererbung getreu von Generation zu Generation ubertragen
worden sind und welche demnach einen unmittelbaredEuckschluss auf entsprec-
hende Vorgange in der stammesgeschichte der entwickelten Vorfahren gestatten-
Cenogenetische Processe hingegen oder ' § ,n,igen nennen

l der keimesgeschiehte, whelche nicht auf solche verer-

• Jugendyorm an bestimme Bedingungen der Keimesent-
*i sind. Diese ontogenetischen Erscheinungen sind

dnrrJmus knnnr uumittdhnn-n ScMhxx auf vntapr,><'hemle
mrsf/whi.cht>> der Ahnenreihe erlauben, vielmehr die Er-
- lien und verdecken."

lews shortened or abbreviated development in a very dis-
to which I am accustomed. He speaks of it as due to iK*
•oduction of " fremdezuthaten " as " Cenogenetische oder Stor

1896.] Lost Characteristics. 1

and further to make his meaning clearer, on page 11 he divides cWMgWMtic ph.
nomena into " Ortsverschiebungen oder Ileterotopien," and, on page 12, "Zei
verschiebungen oder Heterochronies" Organs or parts may be developed het<
rotopieally, that is, out of place or in a different part of the body from thai i
which they originated in the ancestors ; or heterochronically, that is earlier i

jective applied in this country many years beforehand, but that fact does not
seem to have been considered worthy of his attention. Haeckel then proceeds to
add: " Das umgekehrte gilt von der verspiiteU-n Au.sbildungdesDarmcanals, der
r.t-iU-h .hlc d*T i M-ilileclitsorgane. Hier Hegt offenbar eine V« r .
Verspiitung, eine ontogenetische Retardation." This is probably what Cope al-
ludes to in his quotation of Haeckel, and certainly this is a restatement of Cope's
law of retardation with, however, the ommission of any reference to the original
discoverer. It will be gathered from the text above that I view acceleration
firstly, as a normal mode of action or tendency of heredity acting upon all
characters that are genetic, or, in other words, derived from ancestral sources ;
secondly, that a ctetic, or, in other words, a newly acquired character must be-
come genetic before it becomes subject to the law of tachygenesis. Haeckel has
evidently confused ctetic characters like those of the so called ovum of Taenia,
the Pluteus of Echinoderms and the grub, maggot, caterpillars of insects, which
have caused the young to deviate more or less from the normal line of develop-
ment, as determined by the more generalized development of allied types of the
same divisions of the animal kingdom, with the normal characters that are in-
herited at an early stage in the ontogeny and considers them all as heterochronic.
It is very obvious that they are quite disti ctetic characters

may have been larval or even possibly embryonic in origin, and may not have
affected perceptibly the adult stage at any time in the phylogeny of the group,
they are, nevertheless, subject to the law of acceleration and do affect the earliest
stages as has been shown in Hyatt's and Arm's book on Insecta. Such character-
istics do, of course, contradict the record, if we consider that the record ought
have been made by nature according to anthropomorphic standards, and in such
misleading phraseology they are falsifications of the ontogenetic recapitulation of

standards, such expressions are inadmissable. There is absolutely no evidence
that characteristics repeated in the younger stages of successive species and types
owe their likeness to ancestral characters to other causes than heredity. This
likeness may be interfered with or temporarily destroyed by extraordinary
changes of habit, as among the larvae of some insecta and the forms alluded to
above, or among parasites in different degrees, but the obvious gradations of struct-
ures in many of these series show that hereditary tendencies are not easily changed

even among the parasites. It is also evident that the novel larval characters
originating in the young in their turn speedily become hereditary and are incor-

It may be seen from this genesis

14 The American Naturalist. [January,

Either through want of acquaintance with good examples of
retardation or because of a different point of view, I have not
been able to see any duplex action in the law of acceleration.
To me it is the same law of quicker inheritance which is act-
ing all the time in the phylum at the beginning, middle, and
end of its history, as will be seen by the explanation given
above. In Insecta4 1 have tried to apply it to the explanation
of the peculiar larval forms of those animals which often pre-
sent retrogression through suppression of ancestral characters
in the young, although their adults are perfectly normal and
perhaps progressive. Consequently, palingenesis and coengen-
esis are, from my point of view, simply different forms of
tachygenesis, and there is no boundary or distinction between
them. In other words, retardation or retrogression occurs be-
cause of the direct action of tachygenesis upon more suitable
and more recently acquired characteristics which are driven
back upon and may directly replace certain of the ancestral
characters causing them to disappear from ontogenetic devel-
opment.5

ous objection to the use of cenogenesis at all, since it is from Kev6q meaning
strange, and was first applied by Haeckel in such a way that Uth by his ,,:it.~
ments, and the derivation, it ought to be confined to types like larvae of the
Echinodemata Insect, etc., and parasites in which acquired characters do inter

tachygenesis occur in a marked way might be called tachygenetic. Palingenesis
and palingenetic might be confined to generaliae* I forms in which the ontogeny
prolonged recapitulation of the phylogeny, and

* Guides for Science Teaching, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., No. 8.

ii by reduction of parts is evidently included under the head of
tardation by Cope; thus in Origin of the Fittest, p. 353, he says that "change
structure during growth is accomplished either by addition or parts (actelera
>n) or by subtraction of parts (retardation)." So far as my experience goes in
e major number of ca^es, the part- <>f characters that are undergoing reduction
sappear according to the law of tachygenesis. They reappear in the ontogeny
earlier and earlier -!:,-.._, ,„. exhibit this tendency in the same way as charae-
-s of the progressive class, but their development i- not so complete as in ances-
eir development llu e is h..w , „ ,t|lt , u u „t ton ... unj t!
>n for this. Instead of regarding this disappearance by retrogressive gradations
due to a tendency opposed to acceleration, is it not a tendency of the same

1896.] Lost Characteristics. 15

The law of tachygenesis as defined by the writer acts upon
all characteristics and tendencies alike, and is manifested in
genetically connected phyla by an increasing tendency to con-
concentrate the characteristics of lower, simpler, or earlier oc-
curring, genetically connected forms in the younger stages of
the higher, more complicated or more specialized, or more de-
graded, or later occurring forms of every grade, whether the
characteristics arise in adults or in the younger stages of growth.
Since my first publication in 1866, the law has become clearer
to me, but I have made no fundamental change in the con-
ception. The application of the law to degenerative character-
istics appears to me to explain why there are degenerative forms
in the phylum which are indicated by the senile stages of the
individual.

The degenerative changes of the senile period may, and
practically in all cases do, tend to the loss of characteristics of
the adult period and consequently in extreme cases bring
about not only the loss of a large proportion of progressive
characteristics, but loss in actual bulk of the body as compared
with adults, as has been stated above. This is usually re-
garded as due to the failure of the digestive organs or defective
nutrition, and this may be true in many examples ; but, on
the other hand, it often begins in individuals long before there
is any perceptible diminution in size, and may occur in dwarfs
and in some degenerate species in the early stages, and finally
in series of species according to the law of tachygenesis, so that

kind? That is to say, do not the parts and characters show a tendency to disap-
pear earlier and earlier, and are they not, in most cases, at the time of disappear-
n earlier stages of growth than that in which they c

e due primarily to the fact that the
ing to disappear from disuse, tie . and -ecoiularily to their internal position.
When they cease to be ableto breakthrough the gum, will they not still continue
to develop at the same stage as the other teeth, and will not their rudiments be
likely tobe present at this early stage long after they have ceased developing into

one is led to believe that the tendency to the earlier inher-
ence of degenerative modifications producing retrogression is
inheritable like the tendency to the earlier inheritance of ad-
ditional or novel characteristics producing progression. Thus,
this law applied to progressive or retrogressive groups explains
the mode in which their progression or retrogression is accom-
plished so far as the action of the laws of genesiology (science
of heredity) are concerned.

In the same essay on Bioplastology, the writer reviewed Dr.
Minot's law of growth, and in this and in his Phylogeny,
quoted above, used it to throw light upon one of the most
difficult problems of evolution.

It is a general law of unique importance, as readilv observ-
able in the growth of skeletons and shells of all kinds, and
therefore as obvious in fossils as in the famous guinea pigs
studied by Dr. Minot. This law enabled the writer to get
what seemed to him a clearer view of the action of tachygenesis
See Bioplastology (p. 76).

Minot's researches enable one to see clearly that the reduc-
tion of parts or characteristics which takes place through the
action of the law known as the law of acceleration in develop-
ment (often also descriptively mentioned as abbreviated or
concentrated development) cannot be considered as due to
growth.

" It seems probable from my own researches published in
various communications, but more especially in the ' Genesis
of the Anetidae,'6 that the action in this case is a mechanical
replacenwnt of the earlier and less useful ancestral characteristics
and even parts by those that have arisen later in the history of the
group. We can fully understand the phenomena of accelera-
tion in development only when we begin by assuming that
the characteristics last introduced in the history of any type
were more suitable to the new conditions of life on the horizon
of occurrence of the species than those which characterized the
same stock when living on preceding horizons or in less special-
ized habitats. These new characters would necessarily, on

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, v. 26, p. 40-48, 1889- also Mus-
Comp. Zool., v. 16, 1889.

1896.] Variation after Birth. 17

account of their greater usefulness and superior adaptability
ultimately interfere with the development of the less useful an-
cestral stages and thus tend to replace them. The necessary
corollary of this process would be tachygenesis or earlier appear-
rance of the ancestral stages in direct proportion to the number
of new characteristics successively introduced into the direct
line of modification during the evolution of a group.

If this be true, it can hardly be assumed that the loss of
characteristics and parts taking place in this way is directly
due to growth force. If growth has anything to do with these
phenomena, it must act indirectly, and, as in the repetition of
other similarities and parallelisms, under the controlling guid-
dance of heredity.

VARIATION AFTER BIRTH.

By L. H. Bailey.

At the present time, our attention is directed to differences
or variations which are born with the individual. We are
told that variation which is useful to the species is congenital,
or born of the union — or the amalgamation in varying de-
grees— of parents which are unlike each other. From the
variations which thus arise, natural selection chooses those
which fit the conditions of life and destroys the remainder.
That is, individuals are born unlike and unequal, and adapta-
tion to environment is wholly the result of subsequent select-

These are some of the practical conclusions of the NeoDar-
winian philosophy. It seems to me that we are in danger of
letting our speculations run away with us. Our philosophy
should be tested now and then by direct observation and ex-
periment, and thus be kept within the limits of probability.
The writings of Darwin impress me in this quality more than
in any other, — in the persistency and single-mindedness with
which the author always goes to nature for his facts.

18 The American Naturalist. [January,

In this spirit, let us drop our speculations for a moment, and
look at some of the commonest phenomena of plant life as
they transpire all about us. We shall find that, for all we can
see, most plants start equal, but eventually become unequal.
It is undoubtedly true that every plant has individuality from
the first, that is, that it differs in some minute degree from all
other plants, the same as all animals possess differences of per-
sonality ; but these inital individual differences are often en-
tirely inadequate to account for the wide divergence which
may occur between the members of any brood before they
reach their maturity.

The greater number of plants, as I have said, start practi-
cally equal, but they soon become widely unlike. Now, every-
one knows that these final unlikenesses are direct adaptations
to the circumstances in which the plant lives. It is the effort
to adapt itself to circumstances which gives rise to the varia-
tion. The whole structure of agriculture is built upon this
fact. All the value of tillage, fertilizing and pruning lies in
the modification which the plant is made to undergo. Ob-
serve, if you will, the wheat fields of any harvest time. Some
fields are " uneven," as the farmers say ; and you observe that
this unevenness is plainly associated with the condition of the
land. On dry knolls, the straw is short and the plant early ;
on moister and looser lands, the plant is tall,later,withlong, well-
filled heads ; on very rich spots, the plants have had too much
nitrogen and they grow too tall and " sappy," and the wheat
" lodges " and does not fill. That is, the plants started equal,
but they ended unequal. Another field of wheat may be very
uniform throughout; it is said to be "a good stand," which
only means, as you can observe for yourself, that the soil is
uniform in quality and was equally well prepared in all parts.
That is, the plants started equal, and they remained equal be-
cause the conditions were equal. Every crop that was ever
grown in the soil enforces the same lessons. We know that
variations in plants are very largely due to diverse conditions
which arise after birth.

All these variations in land and other physical conditions
are present in varying degrees in wild nature, and we know

um.] Variation after Birth. 19

that the same kind of adaptations to conditions are proceeding
everywhere before our eyes. We cannot stroll afield without
seeing it. Dandelions in the hollows, on the hillocks, in the
roadside gravel, in the garden — they are all different dande-
lions, and we know that any one would have become the other
if it had grown where the other does.

But aside from the differences arising directly from physical
conditions of soil and temperature and moisture, and the like,
there are differences in plants which are forced upon them by
the struggle for life. We are apt to think that, as plants grow
and crowd each other, the weaker ones die outright, because
they were endowed with — that is, born with— different capa-
bilities of withstanding the scuffle. As a matter of fact, how-
ever, the number of individuals in any area may remain the
same or even increase, whilst, at the same time, every one of
them is growing bigger. Early last summer I staked off an
area of twenty inches square in a rich and weedy bit of land.
When the first observations were made on the the 10th of July,
the little plat had a population of 82 plants belonging to 10
species. Each plant was ambitious to fill the entire space, and
yet it must compete with 81 other equally ambitious individ-
uals. Yet, a month later, the number of plants had increased
to 86, and late in September, when some of the plants had
completed their growth and had died, there was still a popula-
tion of 66. The censuses at the three dates were as follows :

July lo. Aug. 13. Sept. 25.
Cr;)l. grass (Panicum sanguinale) . -- 2n 15

Black Mr.liek (Modicum lupulina) • 16 17 15

Pigweed (Cheuopo<
Shepherd's Purse

What a happy family this was ! In all this jostle up to tl
middle of August, during which every plant had increased i

20 The American Naturalist [January,

bulk from two to twenty times, only the crab grass— apparently
the most tenacious of them all — had fallen off; and yet the
area seemed to be full in the beginning ! How then, if all
had grown bigger, could there have been an increase in num-
bers, or even a maintenance of the original population ? In
two ways : first, the plants were of widely different species of
unlike habits, so that one plant could grow in a place where
its neighbor could not. Whilst the pigweed was growing tall,
the medick was creeping beneath it. This is the law of diver-
gence of character, so well formulated by Darwin. It is a
principle of wide application in agriculture. The farmer
" seeds " his wheat-field to clover when it is so full of wheat
that no more wheat can grow there, he grows pumpkins in a
cornfield which is full of corn, and he grows docks and stick-
tights in the thickest orchards. Plants have no doubt adapted
themselves directly, in the battle of life, to each other's com-
pany.

The second and chief reason for the maintenance of this
dense population, was the fact that each plant grew to a differ-
ent shape and stature, and each one acquired a different long-
evity ; that is, they had varied, because they had to vary in
order to live. So that, whilst all seemed to have an equal
chance early in July, there were in August two great branch-
ing red-roots, one lusty ragweed and 83 other plants of various
degrees of littleness. The third census, taken September 25th,
is very interesting, because it shows that some of the plants of
each of the dominant species had died or matured, whilst
others were still growing. That is, the plants which were
forced to remain small also matured early and thereby, by vir-
tue of their smallness, they had lessened, by several days, the
risk of living, and they had thus gained some advantage over
their larger and stronger companions, which were still in dan-
ger of being killed by frost or accident. When winter finally
set in, the little plat seemed to have been inhabited only by
three big red-roots and two small ones and by one ragweed.
The remains of these six plants stood stiff and assertive in the
winds ; but if one looked closer he saw the remains of mi
lesser plants, each "yielding seed after his kind," each one

many

1896.] Variation after Birth. 21

doubt, having impressed something of its stature and form
upon its seeds for resurrection of similar qualities in the follow-
ing year. All this variation must have been the result of strug-
gle for existence, for it is not conceivable that in less than two
square feet of soil there could have been other conditions suf-
ficiently diverse to have caused such marked unlikenesses ;
and I shall allow the plat to remain without defilement that I
may observe the conflict in the years to come, and I shall also
sow seeds from some of the unlike plants. From all these
facts, I am bound to think that physical environment and
struggle for life are both powerful causes of variation in plants
which are born equal.

Still,the reader may say, like Weismann,that thesedifferences
were potentially present in the germ, that there was an inher-
ited tendency for the given red-root to grow three feet tall
when 85 other plants were grown alongside of it in twenty
inches square of soil. Then let us try plants which had no
germ plasm, that is, cuttings from maiden wood. A lot of cut-
tings were taken from one petunia plant, and these cuttings
were grown singly in pots in perfectly uniform prepared soil,
the pots being completely glazed with shellac and the bottoms
closed to prevent drainage. Then each pot was given a
weighed amount of different chemical fertilizer and supplied
with perfectly like weighed quantities of water. All weak or
unhealthy plants were thrown out, and a most painstaking
effort was made to select perfectly equal plants. But very
soon they were unequal. Those fed liberally on potash were
short, those given nitrogen were tall and lusty ; and the vari-
ations in floriferousness and maturity were remarkable. The
data of maturity and productiveness were as follows :
Phosphate of Sulphate of Phosphate of Check Phosphate of

Potash. Potash. Soda. Ammonia.

68 days 99 days 65 days 67 days 104 days

23 J hlooms 18 blooms 27J blooms 26 J blooms 33 blooms

Here then, is a variation of 39 days, or over a month in the
time of first bloom, and of an average of 15 flowers per plant
in asexual plants from the same stock, all of which started
equal and which were grown in perfectly uniform conditions,
save the one element of food.

22 The American Naturalist. [January,

But these or similar variations in cuttings are the common-
est experiences of gardeners. Whilst some philosophers are
contending that all variation comes through sexual union, the
gardener has proof day by day that it is not so. In fact, he
does not stop to consider the difference between seedlings and
sexless plants in his efforts to improve a type, for he knows by
experience that he is able to modify his plants in an equal
degree, whatever the origin of the plants may have been.
Very many of our best domestic plants are selections from
plants which are always grown from cuttings or other asexual
parts. A fruitgrower asked me to inspect a new blackberry
which he had raised. " What is its parentage ? " I asked.
" Simply a selection from an extra good plant of Snyder " he
answered ; that is, selection by means of suckers, not by seed-
lings. The variety was clearly distinct from Snyder, where-
upon I named it for him. The Snyder plants were originally
all equal, all divisions in fact, of one plant, but because of
change of soil or some other condition, some of the plants
varied, and one of them, at least, is now the parent of a new
variety.

But even Mr. Weismann would agree to all this, only he
would add that these variations are of no use to the next gen-
eration, because he assumes that they cannot be perpetuated.
Now, there are several ways of looking at this Weismannian
philosophy. In the first place, so far as plants are concerned
in it, it is mere assumption, and, therefore, does not demand
refutation. In the second place, there is abundant asexual
variation in flowering plants, as we have seen ; and most
fungi, which have run into numberless forms, are sexless. In
the third place, since all agree that plants are intimately
adapted to the conditions in which they live, it is violence to
suppose that the very adaptations which are directly produced
by those conditions are without permanent effect. In the
fourth place, we know as a matter of common knowledge and
also of direct experiment, that acquired characters in plants
often are perpetuated.

I cannot hope to prove to the Weismannians that acquired
characters may be hereditary, for their definition of an acquired

1896.] Variation after Birth. 23

character has a habit of retreating into the germ where neither
they nor anyone else can find it. But this proposition is easy
enough of proof, viz., plants which start to all appearances per-
fectly equal, may be greatly modified by the conditions in
which they grow; the seedlings of these plants may show
these new features in few or many generations. Most of the
new varieties of garden plants, of which about a thousand are
introduced in North America each year, come about in just
this way. A simple experiment made in our greenhouses also
shows the truth of my proposition. Peas were grown under
known conditions from seeds in the same manner as the petu-
nias were, which I have mentioned. The plants varied widely.
Seeds of these plants were saved and all sown in one soil, and
the characters, somewhat diminished, appeared in the off-
spring. Seeds were again taken, and in the third generation
the acquired characters were still discernible. The full details
of this and similar experiments are waiting for separate publi-
cation. The whole philosophy of " selecting the best " for
seed, by means of which all domestic plants have been so
greatly ameliorated, rests upon the hereditability of these
characters which arise after birth ; and if the gardener did not
possess this power of causing like plants to vary and then of
perpetuating more or less completely the characters which he
secures, he would at once quit the business because there
would no longer be any reward for his efforts. Of course, the
Neol ►arwinians can say, upon the one hand, that all the vari-
ations which the gardener secures and keeps were potentially
present in the germ, but they cannot prove it, neither can they
make any gardener believe it; or, on the other hand, they can
say that the new characters have somehow impressed them-
selves upon the germ, a proposition to which the gardener will
not object because he does not care about the form of words so
long as he is not disputed in the facts. Weismann admit- that
" climatic and other external influences " are capable of affect-
ing the germ, or of producing " permanent variations," after
they have operated " uniformly for a long period," or for more
than one generation. Every annual plant dies at the end of
the season, therefore whatever effect the

^ The American Naturalist. [Jinu-irv,

have had upon it is lost, unless the effect is preserved in the
seed ; and it does not matter how many generations have lived
under the given uniform environment, for the plant starts all
over again, de novo, each year. Therefore, the environment
must affect the annual plant in some one generation or not at
all. It seems to me to be mere sophistry to say that in plants
which start anew from seeds each year, the effect of environ-
ment is not felt until after a lapse of several generations, for if
that were so the plant would simply take up life at the same
place every year. This philosophy is equivalent to saying
that characters which are acquired in any one generation are
not hereditary until they have been transmitted at least once !
My contention then, is this : plants may start equal, either
from seeds or asexual parts, but may end unequal ; these in-
equalities or unlikenesses are largely the direct result of the
conditions in which the plants grow; these unlikenesses may
be transmitted either by seeds or buds. Or, to take a shorter
phrase, congenital variations in plants may have received
their initial impulse either in the preceding generation or in
the sexual compact from which the plants sprung.
Cornell University, Ithaca, K Y.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE POINT OF ACUTE

VISION IN THE VERTEBRATES.1

By J. R. Slonaker,

In this preliminary sketch of a comparative study of the
eyes of vertebrates, with special reference to the fovea centralis
or point of acute vision, I shall first give the processes and
methods of preparation which I have used and results ob-
tained, and, second, the position of the area centralis as indi-
cated by the retinal arteries. The microscopic descriptions
and the relation of the position and shape of the eye and ar-
rangement of the retinal elements to the habits of the animal
will follow in a later paper.

1 1 wish to thank Dr. C. F. Hodge for valuable assistance and for his method
of injecting the eye-ball, thus preserving it for complete sections. I am also very
much indebted to Clark University for valuable aid and for apparatus and mate-

For microscopical purposes and best results it is necessary to
obtain the eye fresh, at least not later than an hour after death,
and subject it to the action of certain hardening liquids which
will permeate and preserve without causing the retina to swell
and become wrinkled. With some animals it is quite easy to
preserve the retina without its becoming wrinkled or floated
off' (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and some mammals), while
with others (most mammals and birds) it is a more difficult task.

In order to prevent this folding and floating off of the retina.
the eye is injected under pressure and immersed at the same
time in a bath of hardening fluid. It is carried thus on up
through the different percentages of alcohol and imbedded in

A more minute de-
scription of the method
is as follows: Fig. 1
represents a rack with
movable shelves, o n
which are placed bot-
tles A and A', contain-
ing the same fluid as
bottles B and B', and
provided with siphons
to connect with glass
cannulas.

In order to insert the
cannula, a hole is care-
fully drilled about the
equator and on a merid-
ian perpendicular to the
plane in which it is de-
sirable to obtain sec-
tions. The perforation
is stretched open, rather
than cut, so the sclero-
tic will clasp the neck
of the cannula tightly.
A convenient instru-
ment for this operation
is a spear-pointed dis-
secting needle, and not

26 The American Naturalist. [January.

too sharp. At the same time reach forward with the point of
the needle and pierce the suspensory ligament and iris in order
to open the aqueous chamber. In doing this, care is taken
not to injure structures in the plane of the desired sections. A
cannula of suitable size, being connected with a siphon from
A or A', is filled with the liquid and inserted. The cannula
should have a fine smooth point. Great care is taken in in-
serting it so that the stream of fluid is not directed behind the
retina to float it off. A hole is now made in the opposite side
of the eye, the aqueous chamber again pierced and all aqueous
} animals this

hui,

d vitreous humor allowed to
very much more gel-

atinous than in others, and re-
quires much more pressure to
remove it. The hole below is
then stopped with a small glass
plug (Fig. 2, B), and the eye
immersed in hardening fluid
(Fig.l,B). The bottles are now
covered as tightly as possible
with tinfoil to prevent evapora-
tion and entrance of dust parti-
cles. The cannula and stopper
should fit so tight that there is

) leak. In

'very <

■ the i

entation of the eye is marked

before it is removed from the

head. This is done by sewing a small tag to the outer layers

of the sclerotic (Fig. 2, C).

The pressure varies greatly with the kind of eye used. Those
with thin walls, or containing much cartilage, birds and am-
phibians, require little pressure, while mammals, in general,
can receive much higher. The pressures which I have found
to work best vary between 28 and 36 cm.

The hardening fluid used is Perenyi's, in which the eye is
allowed to remain twenty-four hours, when it is changed to
70 per cent, alcohol.

In making changes of liquids, great care should be taken
that no air get into the eye, and that all the former liquid is

1896.] Acute Vision in the Vertebrates. 27

replaced with fresh by removing the stopper in the lower part
of the eye. After remaining twenty-four hours in each of the
following liquids : 80, 90, 95 per cent., absolute alcohol and
absolute ether (1 part each), it is then changed to celloidin.
Best results are obtained when three grades of celloidin are
used— 1st, very dilute ; 2d, less dilute ; 3d, as thick as will run.
It is allowed to remain from four to six days in the first, six to
eight days in the second, and ten to fifteen days in the third.
If the eye is kept well under pressure throughout this process,
the retina will be well preserved and lie smoothly against
the choroid.

I have tried other liquids for hardening the eye whole, but
with poor success. Have tried the method of Barrett and of
Cuccati, but, in each case, the retina was very much wrinkled
and folded, while the whole eye was much shrunken and out
of shape. In vapors of osmium, I have had fairly good results
with the retina, but the same trouble, due to the shrinking of the
whole eye, is present. Chievitz says2 that a fish's eye may be
preserved whole, with retina lying nicely back, by simply im-
mersing it, or even the whole head, in 80 per cent, alcohol.
The hardening agent which he generally uses is 2.5 per cent.

Another method which I have employed with small ani-
mals, especially birds, in order to demonstrate quickly the
presence or absence of a fovea, is to immerse the whole head
in Perenyi's fluid for from three to five hours. This will
harden the eyes so that the cornea, lens and vitreous humor
may be removed, leaving the posterior half in situ. With
birds I have had good results, the retina lying back smoothly so
that the fovea and entrance of the nerve, marked by the pec-
ten, may be easily seen. Fig. 3 represents diagrammatically
the appearance of the retina after the front of the eye has been
removed.

In order to show the angles which the lines of vision make
with the median plane, sections were made through the whole
head of several animals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and

Anatonrie and Entwickelungsgeschichte, Sup., Band, 1889, p. 141-142.

28 The American Naturalist. [January,

small mammals), the plane of the section passing through
each fovea on the centre of the area centralis. Fig. 4 repre-
sents such a section through the foveas a and b of a chickadee's
head (Parus atricapillus), while the lines G H and G I show

the axis of vision. The dotted lines c mark the position of the
optic nerves which enter in a plane much lower down. In
order to harden the whole head, and, at the same time, decal-
cify the bone, it must remain longer in Perenyi's fluid (about
thirty- six hours), and to preserve the cornea and lens in posi-
tion, a window is made in the top of the eye that the fluids

Having had good success with simple immersion of the
head, this method was tried for hardening the small eyes, and
with good success. In fact, the retina proved in good condi-
tion, if not better, than when taken through by the injection
method. The eye-ball, however, usually caves in when placed
in 70 per cent, or 80 per cent, alcohol, but this may be pre-
vented by simply making a small slit through the sclerotic

1896.] Acute Visiofi in the Vertebrates. 29

into the vitreous chamber before immersing in 70 per cent,
alcohol to allow the liquids to pass in. Just before putting
into celloidin, a window is made parallel to the plane of de-
sired sections, and the hardened vitreous humor is easily re-
moved without injury to the retina or other structures. This
method is now used with small eyes instead of the injection, as
it is so much easier of manipulation.

In order to show the relation of the retinal arteries to the
area and fovea centralis, they were injected with the gelatine-
carmine mass of Ranvier. In small animals this injection was
made in the carotid arteries, while with large animals the eyes
were removed and the injection made into that branch of the
ophthalmic artery which supplies the retina. After injection,
the eyes were at once cooled and hardened in alcohol. When
hardened, the front half of the globe and the vitreous humor
were carefully removed, exposing to view the retina, arteries,
entrance of nerve, and area and fovea centralis, when present.
The fovea is at once seen if it be present, but the area is some-
times very difficult to discern, and, were it not for the blood-
vessels acting as land-marks, it might be overlooked altogether.
Drawings were made of this posterior half, great care being
taken to orient it, so that one would look into it along the axis
of vision.

The results of these injections only serve to substantiate
Miiller's observation.3 He states that mammals are the only
class of vertebrates which possess, in the true sense, a retinal
circulation, while with many mammals only a meagre circu-
lation is present (horse and rabbit). Fish and amphibians
possess a good circulation in the hyaloid membrane, while
birds and many reptiles have the circulation of the pecten.
Huschke states that these vessels of the hyaloid membrane and
the pecten correspond to the retinal vessels in mammals. They
do not, however, penetrate the retina.

With animals which have neither retinal nor hyaloid ves-
, sels, it would appear that the retina is nourished by the cho-
roidal vessels. In fact, in animals with good retinal circula-
tion, the capillaries do not penetrate deeper than the outer

SH. Muller, Anatomie und Physiologie des Auges, p. 117.

30 The American Naturalist. [January,

molecular layer, thus leaving the rod and cone, and outer
nuclear layers without blood-vessels.4

Investigations show that not all vertebrates possess foveae,
but that each elass has a representative which does. When
there is no fovea, a well-defined area centralis is usually pres-
ent. However, in some vertebrates, even an area has not been
observed.

The following condensed tabulation will show the frequency
of the area and fovea centralis in the eyes which have been

i

!

Areafw. :

F_

L

1

\

! |i

1

»

5L.

';

^l

; '

From this tabulation it is readily seen, so far as experimei
have gone, that in mammals the presence of a fovea is the (
ception while an area is the rule. The primates are the or
mammals in which a fovea has been found. Most of the ma
mals examined have a well-defined area which is easily sei
but, in some, an area has not been demonstrated. The i
rangement of the retinal vessels, however, indicates the pr
ence of an area which is free from blood-vessels, and may c
respond to the area centralis of other animals.

' IT. Mttller, '-<-

5 These results are part.. ilation of J. H. Chievitz in

er das Yorkommen <ler An-;( < ,i:i r:ili~ r.-tinat- in

189(3.] Acute Vision in the Vertebrates. 31

With birds, the presence of a fovea seems to be the rule. In
fact, the domestic chicken is thus far the only exception.
Many birds have a fovea and band-like area, while some have
two fovese and a band-like area connecting them.

In reptiles, the number of species provided with fovea or
simple area are more nearly equal, while with amphibians
and fishes, the area has frequently not been seen, and the fovea
is only seldom observed.

The area centralis varies greatly in form and extent in dif-
ferent animals. It varies from the round form of small extent
found in the cat and the weasel to the band-like form found in
the horse, sheep, rabbit, frog, etc., which extends horizontally
across the retina.

In the case of the fovea we also find a variety of forms and
positions. In some animals it is situated on the nasal side of
the entrance of the optic nerve {fovea na*ali»), while in others
it is on the temporal side (fovea temporalis). According to
Muller,6 in the former case we have monocular vision, while in
the latter we have binocular vision. In form it varies from a
mere dot-like impression, as in some lizards, to a well marked
funnel-like pit in most birds, especially crow, bluejay, robin,
etc., and to a trough-like depression in the crocodile which
extends horizontally across the retina. Two fovea? have been
found in some birds, as in swallows and terns, in which case
the fovea nasalis is very near the centre of the retina, and lias
to do with single vision. It is also larger and deeper than the
fovea temporalis, which is situated near the ora serrata and
functions in double vision. According to Chievitz,7 the tern
has not only two fovre, but a trough-like fovea connecting them,
and the goose, duck and gull have a round fovea and a band-
like area.

A great difference exists in the different vertebrates when
their ability for acuteness of sight is considered. It varies from
the most perfect sight found in man (and possibly in birds

6 II Mullcr. 1'f-l.n.T da- Yorhand-.-in zweier Fovea in der Netzhaut Vk-\-r
Vogelaugen— 7. 3ept, 1863, p. 438-440; or
Anatomie und Physiologie des Auges p. 139, 142-143.

7 J. H. Chievitz I la- York \ - ivtina Uchiv. t".
Anat. u. Entwick., 1891, p. 324.

32 The American Naturalist. [Jannary,

also) where exceedingly fine discriminations are possible, to
the limited visual power found in other animals, where only
an area centralis is present. Though acute vision and a fovea
have always been associated, still we cannot, at present, say
that the animals which do not possess a fovea are not able to
see acutely. In order to make clear the relation of sight to the
habits of the animal, a much more careful observation of its
visual habits, and the histological arrangement of the retinal
elements will be necessary.

EDITOR'S TABLE.

— The Antivivisectionists have been endeavoring to i
of opinion on the utility of vivisection, by circulating blanks for signa-
tures, which are attached to a few alternative opinions on the subject
in point. The alternatives, excepting those expressing an uncondi-
tional affirmative and negative, were not sufficiently precise or well
stated to satisfy persons of moderate views, so that it was necessary to
amend them more or less to express such opinions. In the summary
of the results thus obtained, the antivivisection managers omitted most
of these moderate views, and only gave to the public the two extremes.
The circulars were also very injudiciously distributed, as a majority
of them went to persons unfamiliar with the work of scientific research,
as clergymen, etc. The only persons who have a practical knowledge
of the subject are original investigators in the natural sciences, physi-
ologists and physicians. The opinions of other persons must be mostly
formed at second hand.

As a body of men, those above referred to are at least as humane as
any other class in the community. Their business is to relieve suffer-
ing, and they are not insensible to those of the lower animals. Natural-
ists, as a body, are probably more humane in their feelings towards
animals than any other class in the community. Nearly all of these
meu are, however, well convinced not only of the propriety, but of the
necessity of vivisection. It is the only method of attacking many
difficult problems of physiology. It is the basis of our knowledge of
the functions of the human organism, which is itself the fir-t <•->< nt'uil
to the control of human disease and human sutferim'. The autivivi-

1896.] Editor's Table. 33

sectionists are, unwittingly, doing what they can to sustain ignorance
and to prevent the relief of human suffering. They are sacrificing their
fellow beings, their relatives and their friends, in preference to a few
of the lower animals. Men, women and children may suffer and die;
white rabbits, guinea-pigs and dogs may live. Such logic is like that
of the Spanish Inquisitors, who tortured human beings under the belief
that they served God and the cause of religion in so doing. There is,
however, less excuse for the antivivisectionists, since knowledge is more
widely distributed now than then, and the great utility of vivisection has
been demonstrated over and over again.

The six national scientific societies to meet during the holidays in
Philadelphia will probably express their views on this subject, and it
may be confidently expected that these will accord with those of science
the world over.

Intelligent people are best deceived by intelligent frauds. A fraud
in order to succeed in the United States must make pretensions to supe-
rior knowledge. The alleged or actual graduate of medicine who
desires to be a fraud has a pretty good field in this country ; and his
successes are ever with us, in spite of the opposition of the many true men
of that profession. The scientific fraud has not yet developed very
largely, as there is no money to be made by pretense in this direc-
tion. In fact this species of the genus is not generally a person of evil
intentions, and errs chiefly through an active imagination, and perhaps
sometimes through a tendency to megalomania.

We are moved to these remarks by reading an article in the Dec-
ember number of a Chicago Journal called Self Culture. On p. 587
we read ; " Examination of the brain of such an idiot before its education
has begun, shows but few brain cells, and a few nerve fibres connecting
them. And when a postmortem has been made upon the child that
was once an idiot but that has been lifted up by long years of patient
training to citizenship in the moral and rational sphere in which we live
and move, such a postmortem shows that an infinite number of brain-
cells have been created de novo; that fibers becoming necessary have
appeared, to connect such cells, centers of sensation and emotion and
thought."

Now the author of this paragraph should refer us to the published
articles which describe the removal of the brains or parts of brains of
idiotic children for sectioning and microscopic investigation, and the
subsequent replacement of these organs or parts of them in the crania
of the children in order that they may undergo the "long years of

34 The American Naturalist. [January,

patient training " which follow. We would like to know the technique
of the operation, and the name of the operator and that of the institu-
tion where he operates. Some grown persons might desire to secure
his services, and almost everybody could point out some one else, to
whom they think such a course of treatment would be useful. Some
peculiar conditions might be found which it would be desirable to re-
move permanently, and so save the " labor of long years " etc.

The editor of the Journal on page 609 stimulates our curiosity further
by saying that " Professor Elmer Gates, a psychologist who has for
several years been making elaborate studies both in Washington and
Philadelphia, has added not a little to our knowledge of the develop-
ments of the brain and the relation of particular parts of the brain to
thought and emotion and the use of particular parts of the body." The
view indeed is not new, but the confirmation given by Prof. Gates
researches is very interesting " He then quotes language from Dr.
Julius Althaus as to the supposed seat of mental activity in the brain,
which embodies a general statement of the little knowledge we have on
the subject. The question naturally arises as to the alleged researches
of Dr. Gates, and the extent to which they have confirmed our hypo-
theses on this subject, and if so, as to where they were published ? The
editor does not tell us. This is a pity, for assertions without authority are
useless to science. Is there any connection between these researches
and the alleged vivisection of idiots recounted in the article we first
quoted ? The name signed to the latter is not that of Dr. Gates, so we
are quite in the dark. A journal which publishes an article by Sir
Wm. Dawson, and writes up the Universities, ought to give us more
light no these wonderful researches.

—It is again proposed that the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science meet in San Francisco in the near future. The
Board of Supervisors of that city are said to have extended an invitation
to visit the city in 1897. The Association has had many such invitations,
and they would have been accepted had the railroad authorities been will-
ing to place their rates within reach of the members. The authorities
of San Francisco have, however, this time included in their invitation
the British and Australian Associations, and we are informed that the
British members will have free or nominal transportation via the
Canadian Pacific R. R. It is said that the Dominion of Canada will
make an appropriation towards defraying their transportation expenses.
Perhaps our Congress would be willing to make an appropriation for
securing the transportation of our own members. The amount will not

1896.] Recent Literature. 35

exceed the outlay on funeral solemnities annually expended by it.
Such meetings tend to bring about amicable relations among the living,
and to promote the interest in and distribution of knowledge. It
might be good politics if the Canadian Boundary and Venezuelan ques-
tions should be still on hand in 1897.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Petrology for Students : An Introduction to the Study of
Rocks under the Microscope, by Alfred Harker, University Press,
Cambridge. MacMillan & Co., New York, 1895. Pp. vi and 306 ;
figs. 75 ; price $2.00.

This volume of the Cambridge Natural Science Manuals will be
heartily welcomed by teachers and students of geology in all English-
speaking countries. It presupposes a knowledge of the microscopical
features of minerals, and consequently deals only with rocks. These
the author divides into Plutonic, Intrusive, Volcanic and Sedimentary
rocks. Under each head the general characteristics distinguishing
each of the several rock classes are briefly mentioned, and descriptions
of the different rock types embraced in each group are given. First
come descriptions of the constituents of each rock, then follows a state-
ment of its pecularities of structure. The principal varieties are next
mentioned, and abnormal, structural and chemical forms are briefly
described. The book concludes with chapters on thermal and dynamic
metamorphism and one on the crystalline schists.

Of course, the treatment of the different subjects discussed is neces-
sarily very brief, nevertheless it is full enough in most cases to give the
student beginning petrography a very good view of the field. A spe-
cially important feature of the work is the large list of references to
articles written in English. With this book at hand, students will no
longer be required to wait until they have mastered German before
beginning the study as heretofore been the case. While by no means
exhaustive, the present volume will serve as an excellent introduction
to the larger French and German treatises, and will, at the same time,
be a good reference book for geologists who do not desire to make a
specialty of microscopic lithology. — W. S. B.

Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crys-
tals, by N. Story-Maskelyne, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1895. New

The American Naturalist.

[January,

York : MacMillan & Co. Pp. xii and 512 ; figs. 597, pi. viii : price

This "Crystallography" is a real addition to the literature of the
subject that it treats. Its appearance reminds one strongly of Groth's
" Physiographische Krystallographie," although the book is by no means
a reproduction of the German treatise. The latter discusses the sub-
ject from the side of solid symmetry, whereas the former deals with it
rather from the analytical point of view. The first 187 pages of the
volume treat of the general relations of crystal planes and of zones.
The next 200 pages take up the six crystal systems beginning with the
cubic, and discuss in order the holosymmetrical and the merosymme-
trical forms, combination of forms and twinned forms. Chapter VIII,
embracing pages 388-463, is devoted to crystal measurements and cal-
culations, and the final chapter to the projection and drawing of crys-
tals. The plates show the projection of the poles of the most general
form and of its derived hemihedral and tetartohedral forms in each

It is almost needless to state that the work of the author is based ex-
clusively on the system of indices, known generally as the Miller sys-
tem. Not only are the faces of crystal forms studied through the aid
of the spherical projection, but the individual planes are discussed
solely in terms of their normals. No reference is made to other sys-
tems of notation, nor to other methods of projection than those elabora-
ted. The book might have been of a little more practical value had
the author at least referred to other systems, but its unity might have
suffered. As it is, the volume is a very complete exposition of crystallo-
graphy from the Miller standpoint, and it will, without doubt, prove
of inestimable value in popularizing this— the most beautiful method
of studying the subject. Of course, the treatment is purely mathemat-
ical, but the mathematics used are simple enough to be understood bv
any one acquainted with the methods of spherical geometry. To the
student of minerals too much emphasis will seem to be placed on the
theoretical aspect of the development of crystal forms, but to the
specialist in crystallography, the emphasis will appear to be placed
just where it belongs— on the possibility of deriving all possible sym-
metrical polyhedrons from certain simple abstract notions concerning
pairs of planes, at the basis of which is the principle of the rationality
of the indices.

to the student of fori
Nevei

doubt that the treatise before us will appeal less strongly

by the former, if, for r

alytical proclii

1896.] Recent Literature.

because it will impress him more strongly than ever wit I
with which nature constructs her inorganic structures. With Dr.
Williams' little book to develop the imagination of the beginner in
ei-y-tallography and to interest him in the science, and the present
volume to carry him on to a very thorough understanding of the re-
lationships of crystal forms, the English-reading student-world is as
well, if not as bountifully, supplied with text books on the subject as
are the students of any European country.

The authors discussions are all logical I v developed, and all his state-
ments are clear and simple. The figures are well drawn and the sub-
jects they illustrate are well selected.— W. S. B.

York: MaeMillan & Co.. 18S)f». Pp. xxxi and 488; tigs. L'iiT, plates

The most striking features of Prof. Tarr'a book are the freshness and

volume is just what its title indicates, except that perhaps the treat-
ment of its subject matter is a little more inclined toward the side of
physiography than toward physical geography. The book is indeed
elementary— more so than one would wish, sometimes; at other times
it is elementary in the statement of the facts described, while leaving
their causes unexplained, where a word or two might have avoided a
difficulty which the teacher will surely meet with in discussions with
his brightest scholars. In the arrangement of material, some fault can
easily be found, but, as the author himself declares, the treatment is,
"in many respects, experimental." In spite of these criticisms, the

The volume is divided into three parts, with four appendices and a
very good index. The first part deals with the air. It includes chap-
ters on the earth as a planet, the atmosphere in general, distribution of
temperature in the atmosphere, its general circulation, storms, its
moisture, weather and climate, and the geographic distribution of
plants and animals. Why the first and last chapters included in this
part are discussed here is not quite plain. Part second deals with the
ocean. It embraces chapters on the ocean in general, waves and cur-
rents and tides. Part third treats of the land and its features. A
general description of the earth's crust is discussed in the opening
chapters. Then follow chapters on denudation, the topographic fea-
tures of the surface, river valleys, deltas, waterfalls, lakes, etc., glaciers,
the coast line, plateaus and mountains, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc.,

The American Naturalist

[.I»nuar

man and nature and economic products. The appendices include one
on meteorological instruments, methods, etc., one on maps and one con-
taining suggestions to teachers. The last is a list of questions on the
text. At the end of each chapter is a list of reference books, with
their titles and prices. This is not of much value to the student, but
is convenient for the teacher. A list of articles to be found in Nature,
Science, the Popular Science Monthly, and similar periodicals might
have been of more value in an elementary treatise. However, the
plan of referring students to original articles on the subjects discussed
is commendable. We can not dismiss the book without another reference
to the many really excellent illustrations and charts it contains. The
former are, without exception, fresh and new, well chosen to illustrate
the author's points and well executed from the bookmaker's standpoint.
Many of the charts are original. The volume is, on the whole, the
most attractive that we have seen on the subject it treats, and its attract-
iveness is not at the expense of scientific accuracy. We can safely
predict a general adoption of the book as a text in many high schools
and academies, and we shall be mistaken if it is not used in some of
our colleges, where the instructor desires an aid in his work rather
than a substitute for work.— W. S. B.

Gray's Synoptical Flora of North America.— In 1835 or
1836, Dr. John Torrey planned a Flora of North America, with which
Dr. Gray soon became identified, and, in July, 1838, the first part
(Ranunculacese to Caryophyllacese) was published; a little later
(October, of the same year), the second part appeared, and in June,
1840, the third and fourth parts were issued, completing Vol I the
Polypetal*. As will be remembered, Volume II was not completed, a
portion appearing in 1841, and the work being suspended at the end'of
the Composite in 1843 (February). Here the work stopped for many
years, and was resumed in 1878 by Dr. Gray (Dr. Torrey having died
five years earlier) under the slightly different title of A Synoptical
Flora of North America. In this volume the Gamopetalse were com-
pleted; in 1884, the Composite and preceding families, since whose
elaboration more than forty years had passed, were revived. Then
shortly afterwards, 1888, came the death of Dr. Gray, followed, in
1892, by the death of Dr. Watson, before the publication of other

In October, 1895, Dr. B. L. Robinson issued the first fascicle of the
revisionfof Vol. I of the Flora, a little more than fifty-seven years since
the appearance of the corresponding fascicle. This" includes the poly-
petalous^families— Ranunculacese to Frank en iacea?. It includes much

Recent Literature

With such a history, stretehing back as it does through more than
half a century, it is not to be wondered at that the work is conservative
to a marked degree. The sequence of families can differ little from
that adopted nearly sixty years ago, and in this fascicle the citation of
authorities, the matter of nomenclature, etc., have been made to con-
form as far as possible to the treatment accorded them seventeen years
ago. This extreme conservatism is to be regretted, since science is more
productive just as its followers are least tied by the traditions of the
past. Yet, with all its conservatism, the Synoptical Flora will be in-
valuable, and every systematic botanist will hope that health and
strength may not fail the present editor before his task is completed.
—Charles E. Bbs8KT.

The Natural History of Plants.1— About seven years ago the
eminent professor of botany in the University of Vienna, gave to the
botanical world a book under the title Pfianzenleben, with which bot-
anists soon became familiar as a most useful work. Some time ago the
welcome announcement was made that the work was to be translated
and brought out simultaneously iu England and America. This has
now been accomplished, and the result is before us in four good sized
volumes, each called a " half- volume," which are attractive externally
and internally. On comparing the translation, as brought out by
Messrs Holt & Co., with the original, it must be conceded that the
former is the by far better done, both in the clearness of text and the
perfection with which the printer has brought out the illustrations.
The colored plates are especially well done, being printed from the
originals by the Bibliographische Institut of Leipzig.

For those who have not seen the original, it may be well to say that it
presents in a readable manner (in a popular manner, we might »jr, it'
the word had not been so dreadfully abused) the main facts as to the
structure, biology, and physiology of plants. It is not a text book for
daily conning by the student, but it is rather a most interesting work to

1 The Natural Hi*l<:r>j <\i Pin,,!.-, their forms, growth, reproduction and di-tri-
bution, from the German of Anton Kern, r mm of Botany in

the Cmvt-r-ity of Vienna, by F. W. Oliver, M. A., D. Sc. Quain Professor of Bot-
any in University College, London, with the assistance of Marian Busk, B. Sc.,
and Mary F. Ewart, B. Sc. With about 1000 original woodcut illustrations and
16 plates' in colors. New York : Henry Holt & Company, 2 vols., large 8vo. pp.

40 The American Naturalist. [January,

be read by not only the botanist, but by every intelligent man and
woman who would know something of the deeper problems with which
modern botany concerns itself. The topics noted in the table of con-
tents will give some idea of the scope of the work as follows: The
study of plants in ancient and modern times ; The living principle in
plants; Absorption of nutriment: Conduction of food ; Formation of
organic matter from the absorbed inorganic food ; Metabolism and
transport of materials ; Growth and construction of plants ; Plant
forms as completed structures; The genesis of plant offspring; The
history of species.

A single quotation taken from the opening chapter may serve to
show the delightful style in which the work is written : "Some years
ago, I rambled over the mountain district of north Italy in the lovely
month of May. In a small sequestered valley, the slopes of which
were densely clad with mighty oaks and tall shrubs, I found the flora
developed in all its beauty. There, in full bloom, was the laburnum
and manna-bush, besides broom and sweet-brier, and countless smaller
shrubs and grasses. From every bush came the song of the nightin-
gale, and the v. tioo of a southern spring morning
filled me with delight. Speaking, as we rested, to my guide, an Italian
peasant, I expressed the pleasure I experienced in this wealth of labur-
num blossoms and chorus of nightingales. Imagine the rude shock to
my feelings on his replying briefly that the reason why the laburnum
was so luxuriant was that its foliage were poisonous, and goats did not
eat it; and that though no doubt there were plenty of nightingales,
there were scarcely any hares left. For him, and, I dare say, for
thousands of others, this valley clothed with flowers was nothing more
than a pasture ground, and nightingales were merely things to be shot.

"This little occurrence, however, seems to me characteristic of the
way in which the great majority of people look upon the world of
plants and animals. To their minds, animals are game, trees are
timber and firewood, herbs are vegetables (in the limited sense), or,
perhaps, medicine or provender for domestic animals, whilst flowers are
pretty for decoration. Turn in what direction I would, in every county
I travelled fo the qui »1 ions asked by the inhabi-

tants were always the same. Everywhere I had to explain whether the
plants I sought and gathered were poisonous or not ; whether they
were efficacious as a cure for this or that illness, and by what signs the
medicinal or otherwise useful plants were to be recognized and dis-
tinguished from the rest.'' — < n \ici,i;- K. Bi;ssey.

Recent Books and Pamphlet;

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

i Connaissanee de la Faune ]\

Amegh

i no, F.— Preir

liere Contriliuti.

) des Conches

T. XV, II

Phillips, sp.) ft

Nat. Ili-t

(6), XV, 189;

Annual

Report for 18

93, Iowa Geol. 1

Biologic

;al Lectures d<

11, .11 ,luri

H. G. — Klass.

sn und Ordnun

nodermen

: Fiinfter H.l.

Gliederfiissler,

ent Glacial Studi

[«■ in

Greenland.

From the

i, H. P.— Faults

Bo

;ll. Geol
Dana, I

B. S.— Sketch of

theL

ife of Jame

i. (3) XLIX, 1895.

:

Derby, i

0. A.-A Study

in tin

-

3s Dwight Dana. Extr. Am. Journ.

nity of Rocks. Extr. Journ. Geol.

On the Occurrence of Xenotine as an Aceetturjr Element b Rocks.

Jagnetite Ore Districts of Jacupiranga and Ipanema, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Kxtrs.
Km. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLI, 1891. From the author.

Eighth Annual Report of the X C. State Weather Service, April 19, 1895.

Eiskn. G.— On tlie Various Stages of Development of Spermatobium with
lotes on Other Parasitic Sporozoa. Extr. Proceeds. < al. Acad. Sei. (2) Vol. V,
895. From the author.

Fairchild, H. L. — Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of Am. Geol.

The Kameraoraine at Rochester, X. Y. Extr. Amer. Geol., Vol. XVI,

Glacial Lakes of Western Xew York- Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.

, 1895. From the Soc.

■ J. — Classification of European Glacial Deposits. Extr. Journ. Geol.,

42 The American Naturalist. [Jutucy,

Hayes, S.— The Shaw Mastodon. Extr. Journ. Cin. Nat. Hist. Soc, 1895.
From the author.

Slosson, E. E. and L. C. Colburn.— The Heating Power of Wyoming Coal
and Iron. Special Bull. Univ. Wyoming, Jan., 1895.

Hyatt, A-— Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. Extr. Proceeds. Amer.
Philos. Soc, Vol. XXXII. From the author.

King, F. P.— A Preliminary Report on the Corundum Deposits of Georgia.
Bull. No. 2, 1894, Geol. Surv. Georgia.

Lioy, P.— Ditteri Italiani. Milano, 1895. From Ulrico Hoepli, Editore.

Merrill, J. A.— Fossil Sponges of the Flint Nodules in the Lower Cretaceous
of Texas. Extr. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, Vol. XXVIII, 1895.
From Alexander Agassiz.

Minot, H. D— The Land Birds and Game Birds of New England. Second
Edition, Edited by William Brewster. Boston, 1895. From the Pub., Hough-
ton, Mifflin and Co.

Maggi, L.— Tecnica Protistologica. Milano, 1895. From Ulrico Hoepli,
Editore.

Moore, J. P.— The Anatomy of Bdellodrilus illuminatus, an American Disco-
drilid. Extr. Journ. Morph., Vol. X, 1895. From the author.

Nipher, F. E.— On the Electrical Capacity of Bodies, and the Energy of an
Electrical Charge. Extr, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. VII, 1895. From

-The Hereditary Mechanism and the search for the Unknown
. Fifth Biological Lecture at the Marine Biological Labor-
1, 1894. Boston, 1895. From the author.
Viaggio del Dott A. Borelli nella Republica Argentina e

till ed Anfibi. Nuova specie di Lepidosternum. Extr.

d Anat. Comp., Vol. X, 1895. From the author.
Sherwood, W. L.— The Salamanders found in the Vicinity of New York City
with notes upon Extralimital or Allied Species. Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc.
New York, 1895. From the author.

Sixth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, 1895. From Wm.
Trelease.

Smith, E. A.— Report upon the Coosa Coal Field. Bull. Geol. Surv. of Ala-
bama, 1895. From the author.

Smyth, C. H. Jr.-( ry.talline Limestones and Associated Rocks of the North-
western Adirondack Region. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From
the Society.

Strong, O. S.—The Cranial Nerves of Amphibia. Extr. Journ. Morph.,
B.Mon. 1S95. From the author.

nn. Soc. N. S. W., Vol IX, 1894. Vr
>tt, C D.— Presidential Address before

OSBORN, H.

F.—

ory at Wooc

•s lb

Peracca, ^

. G-

el Paraquay

Re

oil. Mu-. di

Zo.,1.

1896.] Petrography. 43

Weed, C- M— The Cultivation of Specimens for Biological Study. Concord,
1895. From the author.

Whitman, C. O— Bonnet's Theory of Evolution— A System of Negations ;
Evolution and Epigenesis : The Palingenesia and the German Doctrine of Bon-
net. Lectures delivered at Wood's Holl, 1894. From the author.

alid Scientific and Keligious Basis ? Bos-

Scneral Notes.

PETKOGKAPHY.'

The Origin of Adinoles. — Hutchings2 has discovered a contact
rock at the Whin Sill, England, which, in the author's opinion, repre-
sents an intermediate stage in the production of an adinole from a
fragmental rock. It contains corroded clastic grains of quartz and
feldspar in an isotropic base containing newly crystallized grains of
quartz and feldspar. The isotropic material is derived from the clas-
tic grains by the processes of contact metamorphism, whatever they
may be, as grains of quartz are often seen with portions of their masses
replaced by the substance. The rock has begun its recrystallization
from the isotropic material produced by solution or fusion of the ori-
ginal grains, but the process was arrested before the crystallization was
completed. The paper concludes with some general remarks on meta-
morphism. The author thinks that the statement that in granite con-
tacts no transfer of material takes place has not yet been proven true.
He also thinks that more care should be taken in ascribing to dynamic
metamorphism certain effects that may easily be due to the contact act-
ion of unexposed dioritic or granitic masses.

Notes from the Adirondacks.— The limestones, gneisses and
igneous instrusives of the Northwestern Adirondack region are well
described by Smyth.3 The intrusions consist of granites, diorites, gab-
bros and diabases. The gabbro of Pitcairn varies widely in its struct-
ure and composition, from a coarse basic or a coarse, almost pure
feldspathic rock to a fine grained one with the typical gabbroitic habit.

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

'Geological Magazine, March and April, 1895.

3 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, p. 263.

44 The American Naturalist. [January,

Compact hornblende is noted as an alteration product of its augite.
Where in contact with the limestones the gabbro has changed these
rocks into masses of green pyroxene, garnet, scapolite and sphene. A
second variety of the gabbro is hypersthenic. A third variety is char-
acterized by its large zonal feldspars composed of cores of plagioclase
surrounded by microperthite, although crystals of the latter substance
alone abound in some sections. The ferromagnesian components are
rare as compared with the feldspars. Nearly all specimens of these
rocks are schistose, and all of the schistose varieties exhibit the cata-
clastic structure in perfection. Analysis of the normal (I) and of the
microperthitic or acid (II) gabbros yielded :

Si02 A1203 FeO MgO CaO K20 Na20 H20 Total
I 57.00 16.01 10.30 1.62 6.20 3.53 4.35 .15 = 99.16
II 65.65 16.84 4.01 .13 2.47 5.04 5.27 .30 = 99.71

Near the contact with the limestone the gabbro is finer grained than
elsewhere. Pyroxene is in larger grains than in the normal rock, but
the feldspar is in smaller ones. The limestone loses its banding and is
bleached to a pure white color. Between the two rocks is a fibrous
zone of green pyroxene and wollastonite.together with small quantities of
sphene and garnet and sometimes scapolite and feldspar. The red
gneisses, common to that portion of the region studied which borders
on the gabbro, are thought by the author to be largely modified por-
tions of the intrusive rock.

The Eastern Adirondacks have been studied by Kemp.* The lime-
stones of Port Henry consist of pure calcite, scattered through which
are small scales of graphite, phlogopite and occasionally-quartz grains,
apatite and coccolite. This is cut by stringers of silicates that are
granitic aggregates of pi rnblende and a host of

other minerals. Ophicalcite masses are also disseminated through the
limestones, and these are also penetrated by the silicate stringers.
Merrill3 has shown that the serpentine of the ophicalcite is derived
from a colorless pyroxene. The schists associated with the limestones
are briefly characterized by the author. At Keene Center a grauulite
was found on the contact of the ophicalcite with anorthosite.

Hornblende Granite and Limestones of Orange Co., N. Y.
—Portions of Mts. Adam and Eve at Warwick, Orange Co., N. Y., are
composed of basic hornblende granite that is in contact with the white

1896.] Petrography. 45

limestone whose relations to the blue limestone of the same region have
been so much discussed. The granite contains black hornblende, a
little biotite, and so much plagioclase that some phases of it might well
be called aquartzdiorite. Allanite and fluorite are also present in the
rock, the former often quite abundantly. As the granite approaches
the limestone it becomes more basic. Malacolite, scapelite and sphene
are developed in it in such quantity, that immediately upon the con-
tact the normal components of the granites are completely replaced.
On the limestone side of the contact the rock becomes charged with
silicates, the most abundant of which are hornblende, phlogopite, light
green pyroxenes, sphene, spinel, chondrocyte, vesuvianite, etc. The
contact effects are similar in character to those between plutonic rocks
and limestones elsewhere. The blue and the white limestones are re-
garded as the same rock, the latter variety being the metamorphosed
phase.6

An Augengneiss from the Zillerthal.— The change of a gran-
ite porphyry into augengneiss is the subject of a recent article by
Fiitterer.7 The rocks are from the Zil lerthal in the Alps. The gneisses
are crushed and shattered by dynamic forces until most of the evidences
of their origin have disappeared. The original phenocrysts have been
broken and have suffered trituration on their edges, while new feldspar,
quartz, malacolite and other minerals have been formed in abundance.
The groundmass of the gneiss is a mosaic whose structure is partially
clastic through the fracture of the original components and partially crys-
talline through the production of new substances. The author's study
is critical, and, though he treats the described rocks from no new point
of view, he discusses them with great thoroughness, calling attention at
the same time to the important diagnostic features of dynamically met-
amorphosed rocks.

Petrographical News. — Ransome8 has discovered a new mineral,
constituting an important component of a schist occurring in the
Tiburon Peninsula, Marin Co., Cal. The other components of the
schist are pale epidote, actinolite, glaucophane and red garnets. The
new mineral, lawsonite, is orthorhombic with an axial ratio .6652:1 :
.7385, a hardness of 8 and a density 3.084. The axial angle is 2V=
84° 6' for sodium light. Its symbol is H4 Ca Al2 Si2O10-

•J. F. Kemp and Arthur Hollick: X. Y. Acad. Sci., VII, p. 638.

7 Xeue> Jahrb. f. Min., etc, B.B. IX, p. 509.

8 Bull. Geol. Soc. Araer., Vol. 1, p. 301.

46 The American Naturalist. [January,

Fuess9 has perfected an attachment for the microscope which enables
an observer to enclose with a diamond scratch any given spot in a thin
section, so that it may be easily identified for further study.

Marsters10 describes two camptonite dykes cutting white crystalline
limestones near Danbyborough, Vt. They differ from the typical
camptonite in being much more feldspathic than the latter rock. They
moreover, contain but one generation of hornblende, corresponding to
the second generation in the typical rock, and but few well developed
augite phenocrysts, although this mineral is found in two generations.

A portion of Mte. S. Angelo in Lipari consists of a porous yellowish
pyroxeneandesite containing grains and partially fused crystals of cor-
dierite, red garnets and dark green spinel.11

Cole12 declares that the " hullite " described by Hardman as an iso-
tropic mineral occurring in the glassy basalts of Co. Antrim, Ireland,
is in reality an altered portion of the rock's groundmass, and is no defi-
nite mineral substance.

The same author13 describes the old volcanoes of Tardree in Co. An-
trim as having produced rhyolitic lavas instead of trachytic ones as
has generally been stated.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

On the Species of Hoplophoneus.— Four species of Hop lop ho-
neus have already been described ; H. cerebralis Cope, H. oreodontis
Cope, H. primaevus Leidy and Owen, H. occidental™ Leidy. JKnotomius
atrox will be shown to be a synonym of the latter species. To these
may be added H. robustus and H. insolens herein described. The
following key may be valuable in determining the species from a few

. Skull small, occiput nearly vertical.

a. Superior sectorial with large anterior basal cusp.

1- Pros. I H. cerebralis John Day.

b. Superior sectorial with incipient anterior basal cusp.
'Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1895, I, p. 280.

10 Amer. Geol., June, 1295, p. 368.

11 Bergeat : Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1895, II, p. 148.

12 Belfast Nat. Field Club Proceedings, 1894-5.
3 Geol. Magazine, No. 373, p. 303.

18961 Geology and Paleontology. 47

2. Pms. !r2 pm. 2 reduced or absent H. oreodontisWhhe River.

3- Pms- ! H. primaewis White River.

B. Skull large, occiput overhanging.

Superior sectorial with incipient anterior basal cusp.

4. Pms. i! pm. 2 reduced or absent H. robtutus White River.

5- Pms- I H. insolens White River.

6. Pms. I inferior sectorial with no posterointernal cusp, heel
reduced, H. occidentalis White River.

Hoplophoneus occidentalis Leidy.
In The Extinct Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska (1869) Leidy de-
scribed two fragments of a mandible which he thought indicated a
species larger than Hoplophoneus primaewis and to which he gave the
name H. occidentalis (Drepanodon occidentalis), figuring the specimen
in Plate V. No further material was referred to this species until
1894, when Osborn and Wortman in describing a collection of White
River fossils in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural His-
tory determined two specimens as H. occidentalis, giving measurements
of the more important bones of the skeleton in comparison with those
of H. primaevus. While pursuing my studies in the American Museum
through the kindness of these gentlemen, I found that a complete man-
dible of specimen No. 1407 from the Oreodon Beds agrees in every
particular with Leidy 's type, which I have had the privilege of exam-
ining in the Philadelphia Academy. A drawing of the mandible
accompanied by a faithful copy of Leidy's figure is given in the accom-
panying plate. Associated with the mandible are several vertebrae
and portions of limb bones showing the skeleton to be much larger than
the specimen previously determined as H. occidentalis in the American
Museum Bulletin. They however, agree, as does also the mandible,
with Dinotomius atroz described by Dr. Williston in the Kansas Uni-
versity Quarterly, January, 1895, from a fine skull and nearly com-
plete skeleton. This specimen which I had the pleasure of seeing last
summer I now have no hesitation in referring to H. occidentalis. It
makes possible the determination of the skeletal characters and affini-
ties, and the restoration promised by Dr. Williston will complete our
knowledge of this species. The following measurements are taken from
the Kansas University Quarterly.

Length from inion to premaxillary border . . . 260 mm.

Width of zygomata 145 "

Length of mandibular ramus 164 "

48 The American Naturalist. [January,

Length of humerus 240 *'

Width of distal end of humerus 73 "

Length of tibia 237 "

Width of proximal end of tibia 61"

Width of distal end of tibia 41 "

The relation of H. oecidentalis to Eusmilus dakotensis Hatcher, pub-
lished in the December Naturalist, is at once apparent. By com-
parison with the excellent figure by Mr. Weber, republished by per-
mission in the accompanying plate, it will be seen that H. oecidentalis
stands directly ancestral to E. dakotensis, the dentition agreeing very
strikingly in the characters emphasis ,1 by Mi. II itcher, but differing
in showing an and premolar and the presence of a

heel on the sectorial. In Eusmilus bidentatus Filhol, the type of the
genus, the heel is present.

Hoplophoneus insolens sp. nov.
The determination of the characters of H. oecidentalis makes it ob-
vious that the skeleton determined as such by Osborn and Wortman is
a new species. A complete skeleton (number 11,022) and a second
specimen with the most of the limb bones and a skull lacking the man-
dible (number 11,372), both in the Princeton Museum, enable me to
determine the skull of this species, a character which is lacking in the
American Museum specimen. The particularly close agreement in the
size of the skeletons makes either of them typical, consequently I give
the measurements already published in the American Museum Bulletin
along with measurements from the Priuceton specimen as indicative of
the size of the species.

The skull of H. insolens is long and low, the postorbital constriction
very marked, sagittal crest slightly concave, the occiput overhanging
and concave from side to side, the posttympanic process is long and
massive approaching the postgleuoid process and being produced as far
inferiorly. The limb bones have stout shafts and relatively small ex-
Dentition : I»,Ci, Pm f, M {; the second upper premolar which
is variable in the genus usually being absent in this species.

Length of skull, condyles to premaxillary border . 190 mm.

Length of humerus 200 '*

Length of ulna 212 "

Length of radius ] 60 "

Length of femur 250 "

Length of tibia 188 »<

Length of pelvis 210 "

•'■

fo

[iIuniK on tin Species of Hoplopl

lay to)

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 49

Hoplophoneus primaevus Leidy and Owen.

The original type of this species is figured in the The Ancient Fauna
of Nebraska (1853). Later Leidy figured two skulls in the Extinct
Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska, remarking that the larger one might
be the skull of an old male, and that the original type was somewhat
intermediate in size. The determination of the variation due to sexual
characters seems impossible in the case of the extinct cats. However,
the material which is available, shows that there are two types repre-
sented by these two skulls, the skeletons referable to the types differing
more markedly than the skulls. Inasmuch as Leidy's original type
agrees more closely with the smaller one, the difference being about
such as is presented in any of the species of Machairodonts, it is taken
as representative of H. primaevus. In the Princeton collection there
is a fairly complete skull (number 11,013) and two nearly complete
skeletons (numbers 10,741 and 10,934), with the latter skeleton there
is also most of the skull. This makes it possible to correlate the skull
with the skeletons and give the measurements of the species. The
skull is short and high in the frontal region, the orbit horizontally
oval, the posttympanic process short, the glenoid drooping considerably

The skeleton is not rugose and the limb bones have slender shafts as
in Dinidis felina. The dental formula is I f, C \, Pm 1,M1; the sec-
ond superior premolar probably being constantly present.
Length of skull, condyles to premaxillaries, Leidy's type

(approximately) 150 mm.

Length of humerus 160 "

Length of ulna 163 "

Length of radius 122 "

Length of femur . ? 185 "

Length of tibia I43 "

Hoplophoneus

obustus sp. nov.

This species is proposed as representative of Leidy's second type 01
H. primaevu*. It has its most perfect type in the skeleton and skull
(No. 650) determined as H primaevus by Osborn and Wortman, the
measurements of which were published in the American Museum Bul-
letin, Vol. VI, 1894, p. 228, along with those of H. insolens (H. occi-
dentalis) and which I give here, adding the measurement of the skull.
The species is represented in the Princeton collection by specimen
4

Mo. Bot. Garden,

Naturalist. ' [January,

number 10,647, consisting of a fairly well preserved skull and mandi-
ble together with a humerus and portions of other limb bones. The
skull is relatively large compared with the skeleton. The limb bones
are rugose and have stout shafts, being very similar to those of Dinictis
fortis,1 and are thus very different from those of H. primaevas. Denti-
tition : I !, C |, Pm £> M j.

Length of skull, condyles to premaxillary border . 180 mm.

Length of humerus 170 "

Length of ulna 163 "

Length of radius 132 "

Length of femur . 195 "

Length of tibia 160 "

Length of pelvis 180 "

Hoplophoneus oreodontis Cope.

This species is Cope's type of the genus. I introduce it here for the
purpose of mentioning a complete skull in the Princeton Museum
(number 10,515) which supplements the original type and is, therefore,
used here for comparison. The approximate lengths of the femur and
tibia are based upon the lengths of these bones associated with the type
skull, the epiphyses being lost. Dentition : 1 |, C \ Pm ~, M \.

Length of skull, condyles to premaxillary border, ap-
proximately : 135 mm.

Approximate length of femur 1 20 "

x\pproximate length of tibia 110 "

Hoplophoneus eerebralis Cope.

This species from the John Day is the smallest of the genus and at
the sametime the most peculiar. Cope has pointed out its specific
characters as follows : Space for the temporal muscle relatively short ;
brain capacity large ; profile of the face very convex ; sagittal crest
horizontal ; occiput vertical ; no paroccipital processes ; orbit vertically

1 In ray description of D. /<»■//,, American Naturalist, June, 1*9"), I compared
the skeleton with that of H. occidental™, following the description of that species
as given by Wortman and Osborn, which the foregoing determination of its
skeletal characters shows to be incorrect. D. bombifronsyrhich I described at that
time I now find to be a synonym of D. fortis ; the skull described being cor-
related with the -kelet. ,n and portion of a skull of D. fori is by means of specimen
number 1400 of the American Museum.

1S96.] Geology and Paleontology. .~>1

oval. Dentition : I 2/ , C V, Pm ?', M y, the third premolar being
much reduced.

Length of skull, condyles to premaxillary border (ap-
proximately) 120 mm.

There are thus six species of Hoplophoncus, disregarding H. strigi-
<hns Cope, which being based upon a fragment of a canine exhibiting
a peculiar form, is not characterized by any features which refer it to
Hoplophoneus rather than any other genus. With the exception of H,
cerebralis they are all from the White River. They present an inter-
esting series both in the size of the skulls and skeletons. The accom-
panying series of femora give an idea of the relative characters of the
skeletons of the larger members of the genus as regards size and
strength. Unfortunately nothing is known of the skeleton of H. cere-
hralif, but judging from the size of the skull it would be the smallest of
the series, although probably not much smaller than that of H. oreodon-
tis. In restoring the femur of H. occidentalis I am indebted to Dr.
Williston for information as to its length.

The series of skulls figured in outline when taken in connection with
the series of femora give an idea of the relative size of the species. The
gradation in size is for the most part comparable with the gradation in
size of the skeletons. Each species has shown, from careful comparisons
and measurements of all the available material, a limited amount of
variation, but in no case losing its identity when both the skull and
skeleton are taken into consideration.— Geo. I. Adams, Fellow of
Princeton College.

Explanation of Plates.

Plate I.
Fig. 1. — Hoplophoneus cerebralis (after Cope).

Fig. 2. — Hoplophoneus oreodontis (number 10,515 Princeton Museum).
Fig. 3. — Hoplophoneus primaevus (after Leidy).
Fig. 4.— Hoplophoneus robustus (number 650 American Museum).
Fig. 5.— Hoplophoneus insolens (number 11,022 Princeton Museum).
Fig. 6.— Hoplophoneus occidentalis (after Williston).

All XI

Fig. 1.— Hoplophoneus occidentalis (Leidy 's type).

Fig. 2.— Hoplophoneus occidentalis (number 1,047 American Mu

Fig. 3.— Eusmilus dakotensis (after Hatcher).

52 The American Naturalist. [January,

Fig. 4. — Hoplophoneus primaevus.
Fig. 5. — Hoplophoneus robustus.
Fig. 6. — Hoplophoneus insolens.
Fig. 7. — Hoplophoneus occidentalis.

All XI

The Goldbearing Quartz of California.— The salient charac-
teristics of the gold quartz veins of California are briefly given by Mr.
Waldemar Lindgren in a paper recently published, and the results of
his observations are thus summarized :

"The auriferous deposits extend through the state of California
from north to south, in an irregular and unbroken line.

" The gold quartz veins occur predominantly in the metamorphic
series, while the large granitic areas are nearly barren. The contact
of the two formations is not distinguished by rich or frequent deposits."

"The gold quartz veins are fissure veins, largely filled by silica
along open spaces, and may dip or strike in any direction.

" The gangue is quartz, with a smaller amount of calcite ; the ores
are native gold and small amounts of metallic sulphides. Adjoining
the veins, the wallrock is usually altered to carbonates and potassium
micas by metasomatic processes.

" The veins are independent of the character of ;the country rock,
and have been filled by ascending thermal waters charged with silica,
carbonates and carbon dioxide.

" Most of the veins have been formed subsequent to the granitic in-
trusions which closed the Mesozoic igneous activity in the Sierra Ne-
vada."

Regarding the origin of the gold, the author speaks with reserve.
He points out the possibility of its derivation from the surrounding
rocks, which theory, however, is not altogether satisfactory. He then
states the following facts and the conclusion based upon them :

* First, the gold quartz veins throughout the state of California are
closely connected in extent with the above described metamorphic
series and that the large granite areas are almost wholly void of veins,
though fissures and fractures are not absent from them.

"Second, that in the metamorphic series the gold quartz veins occur
in almost any kind of rock, and that if the country rock exerts an in-
fluence on the contents of the veins, it is, at best, very slight.

" Third, that the principal contact of the metamorphic series and the
granitic rocks is in no particular way distinguished by rich or frequent

1*96.] Geology and Paleontology. 53

" It is further apparent that gold deposits have been formed at dif-
ferent periods, though, by far, most abundantly in later Mesozoic times.
Some of these later veins may have been locally enriched by passing
through earlier impregnations in schist or old concentrations in the
sandstones and conglomerates of the metamorphic series, the gold con-
tents of which have, however, only been proved in isolated cases.

" These considerations strengthen the belief that the origin of the
gold must be sought below the rocks which now make up the surface
of the Sierra Nevada, possibly in -ranis ic masses underlying the meta-
morphic series." (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895.)

Precambrian Sponges.— M. L. Cayeux has published a prelimi-
nary note on the spicules of sponges found in the Precambrian beds of
Bretagne. The author describes the different forms of the spicules,
gives their dimensions, the mode of fossilization, and the probable
causes for their fragmentary condition. The principal conclusions de-
rived by M. Cayeux from his researches are (1) numerous spicules of
sponges of various species are found in the Precambrian phtanite for-
mations of Bretagne, and (2) that all the orders of sponges with sili-
cious skeletons are represented in these formations.

A resume of the facts ascertained concerning this interesting fauna
is given by the author as follows :

" It is impossible not to be struck by the ensemble of the sponges of
the phtanites of Lamballe. Even excluding all the spicules which,
although they certainly are sponges, yet are too fragmentary for exact
identification, there remains an assemblage of forms which points to a
very complex fauna.

" In the light of our present knowledge this fauna appears to be
composed of Monactinellidse, probably abundant, Tetractinellida?, rel-
atively rare, numerous Lithistidae, and a few Hexactinellidse. All the
orders of Silicea are represented. The branching off of the sponges
is then plainly as early as the base of the Precambrian of Bretagne.

" The oldest beds in which any remains have been found belongs
to the Archean of Canada. M. G. F. Matthew has described Cyatho-
spongiat eozoica from the Lower Laurentian of St. John (New Bruns-
wick) and Halkhondrites graphitiferus from the Upper Laurentian of
the same region.

" Cyathospongia ? eozoica may be a species of Hexactinellidse, and
Halichondrites graphitiferus must be referred either to Monactinellidaj
or to Hexactinellida?. The authenticity of these fossil sponges has
been put beyond a doubt by M. Hermann Rauff.

54 The American Naturalist. [January,

" All the great groups of silicious sponges do not figure in this as-
semblage, but the fauna presents this character worthy of note, that
the Lithistidse and the Hexactinellidse, that is to say, the sponges which
have the most complex skeleton occupy a prominent place.

" I have called attention to these Cambrian sponges to show that
there is no fundamental difference between the Precambrian and the
Cambrian sponge fauna. In the one as in the other, we find already
traced, the lines along which the future silicious sponges are devel-
oped." (Annales Soc. Geol. du Nord T., XXIII, 1895.)

Embryology of Diplograptus.— A large collection of specimens
of Graptolites found near Dolgeville, N. Y., furnishes Mr. R. Ruede-
man the data for a paper on the mode of growth and development of
the genus Diplograptus. The species, D. pristis Hall, and D. pristini-
formis Hall, appear as compound colonial stocks instead of single
stipes, as hitherto known. From his observations the writer infers
that the colonial stock was carried by a large air bladder, to the
underside of which was attached the funicle. The latter was enclosed
in the central disc, and this was surrounded by a verticil of vesicles,
the gonangia, which produced the sicula3. Below the verticil of gon-
angia and suspended from the funicle was the tuft of stipes.

It is evident from the structure of these graptolites that the genus
Diplograptus has the combined properties of different groups, and
gives valuable hints in regard to their common ancestry. The inves-
tigation of Mr. Ruedeman is one of the most important recent acquisi-
tions of paleontologic embryology. (Am. Journ. Sci., 1895, p. 453.)

The Upper Miocene of Montredon. — M. Ch. Deperet has just
published the results obtained through the excavations he has been
making in the hill of Montredon near Bize (Aude), The fossils which
he has collected are found also in the peat beds where they are much
broken and slightly worn, and in the white marls where he has found
more complete specimens, such as skulls and parts of limbs with the
bones in proper relation.

Notwithstanding an abundance of fossils, the fauna of Montredon,
until now, was characterized by a paucity of species, comprising only
Dinotherium, Hipparion, a Rhinoceros and an undetermined Ruminant.
The discoveries of M. Deperet have increased the known vertebrates to
twelve. There are, in addition to the animals just mentioned, a wild
>, Tragocem*

1896.] Botany.

mocyon diaphorus, Dinocyon, Hyamarctus arctoides. This last c
says the author, a true intermediate type between Hysenarctus of the
Miocene and the bears of the Pliocene, as Ursus arvernensis and
Ursus etruscm. M. Deperet adds that the discovery of this animal
fills a gap by revealing in a precise manner the ancestral relation of
the bear type. (Revue Scientif., 1895, p. 375.)

BOTANY.

The ViennaPropositions.— (Continued from page 1100, Vol.
XXIX.) — In a succeeding number of the same journal, Dr. Kuntze •
replies to the foregong article at some length. A considerable portion
of the reply is taken up with personalities. This is not without provoca-
tion, for Ascherson and Engler have grievously misrepresented him
in more than one place in the foregoing article, e. g., in the matter of
his proposed 100-year limitation, and his comparison of the changes
required by 1737 and 1753 — as one can readily see by glancing at
Revisio Generum 3\ Indeed, they substantially concede the injustice
of their accusation as to Knntze's statement with reference to the
changes required by 1753, a few paragraphs beyond, when they discuss
their proposed limitation of fifty years. The anonymous correspon-
dent of the Journal of Botany who was so pained at the supposed bit-
terness prevailing in America, is respectfully referred to the pages of
the Oesterreiche Botanische Zeitschrift for an example of the state of
feeling in other lands.

The following extracts will give an idea of Dr. Kuntze's reply.

Of the six propositions of Ascherson and Engler he says: *' Num-
bers 1-4 are not new; No. 5 is a prinei) ium inh ■:•■ jtans, and No. 6 a
supplement to No. 5. The new principle is a year limitation proposal
with retroactive force. I had previously proposed a limitation of Ion
years only for names sought to be revived in the future, which would
only affect old names which are mostly doubtful and undetermined, so
that by my proposed limitation, the doubtful cases would be disposed
of and greater stability of nomenclature brought about. By the prop-
osition of Messrs. Ascherson and Engler on the other hand, acquired
rights would be violated. The gentlemen, indeed, in their last
account no longer recognize this right, even as little as the ri^ht o
political legitimism. These gentlemen now reject also the law o

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

56 The American Naturalist. [January,

priority, and their proposals have never conformed to the Paris code.
One must ask involuntarily what laws Messrs. Ascherson and Engler
do recognize in nomenclature at all. With the best intentions, I can-
not perceive any trace of a ' Rechtshoden.' "

" The Paris code " he continues, " is in my opinion better than the
proposals and deviating principles which Engler. Ascherson and Pfit-
zer suggest and which they themselves follow only in part. Supposing
one followed out the deviating principles honestly and consistently,
many more name alterations and complications would result than
through following the Paris code."

Since Ascherson and Engler have been at some pains to expose what
they deem fundamental errors, one may well ^suggest a fundamental
error upon which they proceed. Their whole argument is based upon
the notion that there is a current nomenclature. It is this very notion,
indeed, which creates a large part of the opposition to all systematic
attempts to bring order into nomenclature. When a systematic goes
goes about the work of adjusting the nomenclature of his particular
group, current nomenclature does not trouble him at all. There he
sets about him with vigor, and even, perhaps, in accordance with rule and
principle. But as he looks about him beyond the range of his own
group, he feels that it would be very convenient if names could stand
as they are in the nearest book at hand, and he becomes conscious of
something which he calls current nomenclature. It may be safely
affirmed that if Dr. Kuntze had taken up a small group and worked
out its nomenclature with the care and thoroughness he bestowed upon
all the Phanerogams, no one would have made more than a passing
objection, and before long his names would have found themselves cur-
rent. Who ever said anything about the radical changes made in the
nomenclature of the Uredinece when Winter and afterwards Schroeter
replaced name after name by the old specific names of JEeidium and
Uredo forms ? Very little that Dr. Kuntze has done is more radical
than that — and their changes are as current as anything can be said to
be at the present day. Before we set about preserving a current
nomenclature, we must produce one, and that can only be done by ad-
hering consistently to rules.

As to the propositions made by Escherson and Engler, not much
need be said. The 5th and 6th are avowedly only another form of the
discredited 4th Berlin thesis. The whole object of the authors seems to
be to save their list of eighty-one names— if not by one means then by
another. They are as radical as the best of us as far as specific nomen-
clature is concerned, and one might well suggest that their attitude

1896.] Botany. 57

towards the eighty-one names the}' are bent on saving at all hazards,
savors quite as much of" legitimism" as anything in the nomenclature
controversy. Moreover the propositions are by no means as easy of
application as they might appear. The work of restoring prior names
has been going on pretty steadily for many years. Since 1891 it has
gone on quite rapidly. Are the names restored since the reform move-
ment began to stand, or are we to add a 7th proposition, something like
this: " No name recognized since 1891 is to be deemed withdrawn from
the operation of the 5th rule? " Then again it must be decided what
shall be considered " use" of a name. If a name appears in a work of
wide circulation there is a presumption that it has been used more or less.
How many other works must cite it to give it validity? And must
they cite it with approval, or will citation as a synonym or without
comment suffice? What sort of works shall be referred to to ascertain
whether a name has been used ? Are names used in catalogues and
printed lists used ? If a writer publish two books, say five years apart,
and cite his own names, if one of the books comes within the limit, have
the names he quoted from himself been used? Or must some other author
use them? The room for individual eccentricity in the application of
such a rule is too great to make the rule practicable.

Besides what need is there of pretending to begin the nomenclature
of genera with 1753, when in fact it is begun with 1845 ? As Ascher-
son and Engler point out, their limitation substantially makes it im-
material whether the nominal starting point is 1753 or 1690. The
labored distinction between generic and specific nomenclature amounts
to very little. It is only partially true that the alteration of a generic
name entails the alteration of the name of every species in that genus.
Under the Kew Rule it might, perhaps, but otherwise it can scarcely
be said that a change of a generic name burdens the memory any more
than the change of a specific name. So long as the distinguishing por-
tion of the binominal remains unchanged, each new binominal does not
have to be learned over.

In conclusion, without going into the merits of the controversy be-
tween Kuntze and Ascherson and Engler, I may say that Dr. Kuntze
never hides behind vague general statements, but supports his asser-
tions by citations and actual instances, so that they may be verified
Whether one accedes to Kuntze's conclusions or not, he may always
know upon what they are based. It would be much easier to determine
the value of the assertions made by his opponents if they were in the
habit of doing the same. It is easy to declaim against " disagreeable
alterations " and to make insinuations as to the motives of the reform-

58 The Amer,

era. But the fact remains that Dr. Kuntze has only attempted to do,
a little radically perhaps, for all the flowering plants at one stroke,
what monographers had been doing piecemeal in every group of the
vegetable kingdom. No one objected to their motives, and few to their
alterations. Their alterations became a part of " current nomencla-
ture." Had the reform been conducted haphazard and piecemeal, it
would have seemed quite proper to many who now vigorously denounce
it. — Roscoe Pound.

The Flora of Ohio.— In the " Catalogue of Ohio Plants " in Vol.
VII of the Geology of Ohio, Professor W. A. Kellerman and W. C.
Werner make an admirable contribution to our knowledge of the
plants of one of the older regions west of the Allegheny Mountains.
The catalogue is prefaced by twenty pages or so of historical matter in
which we learn that the earliest catalogue of Ohio plants (Miami
County) was prepared in 1815 by Dr. Daniel Drake ; this was followed
in 1818 by a paper on the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, etc.,
of Belmont County, Ohio, by Caleb Atwater in the American Journal
of Science (Vol. I), and later, 1831, by Short and Eaton's paper
(Southern Ohio) and two by Riddell ,— Franklin County, in 1834, and
the Flora of the Western States, in 1835, to which a supplement was
added in 1836. Then follow lists by Sullivant (1840), Bigelow (1841),
Lea (1849), Clark (1852 and 1865), Lapham (1854), Klippart (1858
and 1860), Newberry (1859), Hussey (1872), Beardslee (1874), Wright
(1889), besides many short papers in periodicals.

Following the introductory pages one comes at once to the enumer-
ation of plants, in which the arrangement of the families is that of
Engler and Prantl, but oddly enough— in reversed order. Why the
authors gave themselves the trouble to invert the natural sequence is
not stated. It is awkward, to say the least. We notice with pleasure
that the revised nomenclature has been used, and that all specific names
have been decapttalized. Double citations of authorities are given
when necessary, and varieties are given as trinomials. Altogether the
catalogue is a modern one in plan and execution.

After the Angiosperms, there follow the Gymnosperme, Vascular
Cryptogams, Bryophyta, Hepaticse, Lichenes, Fungi, Alga? and Myxo-
mycetes. Of the last six groups the authors state that the list " must
be considered very fragmentary and a mere beginning," yet this is an
excellent beginning, of which the State of Ohio needs by no means to

1896.] Botany. 59

The Flora of the Sand Hills of Nebraska.— Mr. P. A. Ryd-
berg has recently published in the Contributions from the U. S.
National Herbarium (Vol. Ill, No. 3) the results of his careful explor-
ation of the Sand Hills of Central Nebraska in the year 1893. Two
or three counties in about the center of the sand hill region were
selected as the ground to be thoroughly studied, and three months were
given to this limited area. Two streams transverse this area, the Mid-
dle Loup River and the Dismal River. The former is a rapid stream
running down a slope of 8} to 13 feet to the mile, with hills from 200
to 300 feet high on each side of the rather wide valley (i to 1 h miles).
In its narrower portions the valley is filled with lagoons and swamps,
the remains of old river beds. The Dismal River runs through a nar-
rower valley, and the bluffs are higher, ranging from 300 to 600 feet.
Away from the rivers Mr. Rydberg found three kinds of sand hills,
the first of these are called by him the " barren sand hills," not be-
cause they are without vegetation, for they are not, but because they
are at present of very little use to man. Here one finds the true Sand
Hill vegetation, and when seen from the higher points " the hills ap-
pear likes the billows of the ocean."

The Dry Valley Sand Hills constitute the second kind. The hills
are long ridges running mostly east and west with long valleys be-
tween. The underground drainage is so perfect that little or no water
gathers in the valleys, but their rich soil readily yields good crops, or
excellent pasturage.

The Wet Valley Sand Hills differ from the last in the greater abrupt-
ness of the ridges, which are, in fact, sometimes impassable, and in the
less perfect drainage, ponds of water generally occurring at the easterly
end of the valleys. In no case is there " surface drainage," every pond
being destitute of an outlet. About these ponds grasses grow luxu-

It is evident that the Sand Hill flora is not a homogeneous one. The
plants growing along the rivers and about the ponds are very different
in character from those which occur on the wooded summits of the
" barren sand hills," or the steep slopes of the hills which border the
dry and wet valleys. In summing up a discussion of the matter, Mr.
Rydberg says: "The most characteristic plants of the sand hills are
the four blowout grasses, Cakunovilfa lotxjifolia, EragrortL* tenuis, Red-
fieldia flexuosa, Muhlenbergia pungens, of which the first two are found
on nearly every sand hill. Next to these the following are the most
common or characteristic herbaceous plants:

60 The American Naturalis

Andropogon scoparius
Andropogon hallii
Stipa spartea
Stipa comata
Psoralea lanceolata
Psoralea digitata
Carduus plattensis
Opuntia rafinesquii
Euphorbia petaloidia
' geyeri

Acerates viridiflora
Acerates angustifolia
Acerates lanuginosa
Astragalus ceramicus longifolius
Commelina virginica
Tradescantia virginica
Yucca glauca
Amaranthus torreyi
Frcelichia floridana
Cyperus schweinitzii

Chrysopsis villosa j Laciniana squamosa

Cristatella jamesii I Cycloloma atrip licifolia

Corispermum hyssopifolium \ Argemone albiflora

Croton texensis

"The most abundant woody plant is Amorpha canescens, which ia
common all over the sand hills. Next comes the Western Sand Cherry
(Primus besseyi). On the sand hills around Thedford the third in
order is Ceanothus ovatus. Kuhniastera villosa, which should, perhaps,
be classed among the undershrubs, is as common as any of the class.
All these belong to the true sand hill flora. Nearly all the other
woody plants are confined to the Middle Loup and Dismal River Val-
leys. A few, as for instance, Salix fluvialilis, Symphoricarpus occidenta-
ls, Primus americana, Amorpha fruticosa are also found in some of the

The other woody plants along the streams are Comas stolonifera,
Ribes floridum, Rhus radicans, Rosa fendleri, Rosa arkansana, Ribes
aureum, Rhus trilobata, Acer negundo, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, F.
penniylvanica lanceolata, Populus deltoides, Celtis occidental, Juni-
perus virginiana, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Vitis vulpina, Celastrus
scandens, Rubus occidental, Ribes gracile, Crataegus coccinea, Ulmus
americana and Rhus glabra.— Charles E. Bessey.

Recent Botanical Papers.— Dairy Bacteriology by Professor H.
W. Conn comes to us from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, giv-
ing the results of the author's work the past three years.— From the
same source we have papers on Grass Gardens and Alfalfa, by Jared
G. Smith ; Fertilization of the Soil as affecting the Orange in Health
and Disease, by H. J. Webber ; The Grain Smuts, their Cause and Pre-
vention, by Walter T. Swingle ; Water as a Factor in the Growth of
Plants, by B. T. Galloway and A. F. Woods; Forestry for Farmers,
by B. E. Feraow.— From the Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 61

Sciences we have Pollination of Cucurlwts. IM.-ea.-es <>t Plants at Ames
in 1894, and Distribution of Some Weeds in the I'nited States, hy
Professor L. H. Pammel — Dis^emin itiun oi I'l mt- chiefly In their
Seeds, is the title of a pamphlet of fifteen ptgei bated upon the speei-

and after her death presented to Kadditle College. It will prove to he
very suggestive to those who wish to prepare similar collections. — "A

land by their Leaves," and"' Ferns and Evergreen* of New England,"'
are two pamphlets by Edward Knohcl. which deserve to he widely used
in the public schools. They consist of good figures of the leaves, which
should make it possilde tor even the non-h.itaiiical teacher to direct the
attention of children to the trees and ferns. They are sold hv Brad lee
Whidden of Boston for fifty cents each.— We may notice here the
beautiful photogravures of fungi issued by C. G. Lloyd, of Cincinnati.
Ohio; the last numbers are Coprinut oomatm, Onteibuhtm pulffare,
Lyeoperdon separans and Urnula craterium. — Professor T. A. Williams
has published (Bulletin 43, Agricultural Experiment Station) a paper
upon the Native Trees and Shrubs of South Dakota, in which he lists
37 trees and 80 shrubs. Of these, twelve trees and thirteen shruhs are
found in all regions of the State. In the Black Hills, a small region
including not more than one-eighth of the whole area of the State, no
less than eighty-two of the one hundred and seventeen trees and shruhs
are found. — Professor MacDougal writes on Botanic Gardens in the
October Minnesota Magazine. A halftone illustration of the Botanic
Institute at Leipzig, and another of the Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg,
Java, accompany the paper.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Changes Due to an Alpine Climate.— For ten years M. Gas
ton Bonnier, of Paris, has carried on experiments in various parts o
France to determine just what changes occur in plants when they :1r<
transported from the lowlands to high elevations. These are de
scribed in a bulky paper in Annates des Sciences Satureltes: Botaniqnt
Se. VII. T. -". Nos. 4, 5, 6, entitled Eecherches experimentales su
l'adaptation des plantes au climat alpin. Plants of many genera wen
removed from the plains, the roots or root-stocks divided into equal
parts, and these parts set in sim

soil and s
housaud metres, in the Alps and the Pyrenees,

The American Naturalist.

[.I:m„;

and examined from time to time for anatomical and physiological
changes. These soon made their appearance and were as follows, the
changes in the plants exposed to the alpine conditions being attributed
principally to (1) More intense light; (2) Drier air ; (3) A lower
temperature. Change of form and structure : (1) The subterranean
parts as a whole are relatively better developed than the parts above
ground. (2) The rhizomes and the roots show little modification, ex-
cept that the calibre of the vessels is generally smaller and the bark
more precocious ; (3) The serial stems are shorter, more hairy, more
spread out, closer to the soil and with shorter and less numerous inter-
nodes ; (4) In general the stems have a cortical tissue that is less thick
in proportion to the diameter of the central cylinder ; the epidermal
cells have thicker walls and the cuticle is more pronounced ; often the
epidermis is reinforced by a certain number of sub-epidermal layers ;
the different tissues of the central cylinder are ordinarily less differen-
tiated ; when bark exists, it appears earlier and is relatively thicker
on branches of the same age ; when there are secretory canals, they
are relatively, or even absolutely, larger; finally, the stomata are
more numerous ; (5) Usually the leaves are smaller, except sometimes
in sub-alpine regions, more hairy, thicker in proportion to their sur-
face and often absolutely thicker, and deeper green by reflected or
transmitted light ; (6) The blade of the leaf acquires 'tissues better
suited for assimilation ; the palisade tissue is more strongly developed,
either by a narrowing and elongation of its cells or by a considerable
increase in the number of rows, the cells also contain a greater number
of chlorophyll bodies and often each grain of chlorophyll has a greener
tint . when there are secretory canals the diameter is relatively or ab-
solutely greater; the epidermis of the leaf shows less differences than
that of the stem, nevertheless, in general it is better developed, especi-
ally on persistent leaves, which have besides better developed protec-
tive sub-epidermal cells ; the cells of the epidermis are ordinarily
smaller and often the number of stomata per unit of surface is greater
especially on the upper face as M. Wagner was the first to show ; (7) The
petiole shows modifications generally analogous to those of the stems
but much less pronounced ; (8) The flowers are relatively much larger
and sometimes even absolutely larger ; they are more brightly colored
and when the color is due to chromoleucites it is the same as in case of
the chlorophyll grains, the number in a cell is greater, and often each
chromoleucite is of a deeper color; the heightened color occurs also
when it is due to substances dissolved in the cell sap. Experiments
during eight years with Teucrium also show that modifications acquired

1896.] Vegetable Physiology.

by the plant when it is taken from the plain tc
versa, disappear at the end of the same time when the plant is put
back into its own climate. Modification of junctions : (1) If a plant
grown on the mountains is transported immediately to the level of one
grown on the plains (both originally from the same root) we find for
the same surface and under the same conditions, the chlorophjllian
assimilation and the chlorovaporisation are more intense in the leaves
brought from the alpine region ; (2) If the respiration ami the transpira-
tion in the dark are compared in the same way, we find that for equal
weights these functions have about the same intensity, or are less in
the alpine specimens. The paper contains numerous wood cuts show-
ing anatomical details and eleven lithographic plates comparing alpine
and lowland individuals of the same species. The last is a double
plate in color, illustrating tin- brighter hues of the mountain flowers.
Foot notes refer to the principal literature. — Erwix F. Smith.

Spore Formation Controlled by External Conditions. —
Einfluss der ausseren Bedingungeo auf die ^porenbildung von Tham-
nidium elegans Link, by Johann Bachmann, is the title of the leading
paper in Botanische Zeitung for July 16, 1895. Thamnidinm elegans
is a graceful little mould bearing two sorts of sporangia. The sporo-
phore consists of a slender upright stalk, 2-4 cm. high and usually ter-
minated by a single large sporangium, having a columella and bearing
many spores. Midway down the sporophore there are usually one to
ten or more whorls of branches which ramify dichotomously, often

ends small sporangia (sporangiola) generally only 6-8 ft in diameter
and containing only a very few spores, usually 1-4. Sometimes only
the end sporangium develops and sometimes only the dichotomous
sporangioliferous branches ; but the cause of this variation which is un-
doubtedly what led De Bary into the error of supposing Thamnidium a
stage in the development of Mucor, has remained unknown. By vary-
ing his culture media Bachmann has discovered that he can at will
produce sporophores with or without end sporangia and with or with-
out sporongiola ; in the same way he has been able to change the
tiny sporangiola, which frequently bear only a single spore, into big
sporangia provided with a columella and bearing many spores. As
the result of his experiments he divides the fungus into six types as
follows : (1) End sporangium present ; sporangiola appearing very
early on finely dichotomous branches which may reach the tenth sub-
division spores few. This form occured on more than a dozen differ-

64 The American Naturalist. [January,

ent media, the best results being obtained from the following : fresh,
damp horse dung ; dung decoction ; agar-agar with 2} per cent pep-
tone ; agar-agar with 4 per cent peptone and 0.5 per cent nitrate of pot-
ash. (2) End sporangia present ; sporangiola 16-60 ft in diameter,
with numerous spores and frequently with a columella and partial
swelling up of the membrane. This type was obtained in nine differ-
ent media, including the following : thoroughly cooked plums ; damp
bread ; eggs ; oranges ; malt. (3) Only the end sporangium present.
Obtained on slightly cooked plums and on 1 volume of malt extract
in 2 vol. water. (4) Only the sporangiola present. Obtained in vari-
ous culture media by raising the temperature to 27-30° C. (5) a.
Mycelium with thick ends and gemma?. This form was obtained in
the following media : plum decoction with peptone ; 1 vol. grape must
in 4 vol. water with peptone ; 1 vol. malt extract in \ vol. water, b.
Mycelium with fine ends and without gemmse. Obtained in the fol-
lowing fluids : 1 per cent nitrate of potash with 1 per cent Nahrlos.
ung; almond oil with Niihrl.'isun^ ; oleic acid with NTihrlosung ; cane
sugar in various percents. (6) Formation of zygospores. Not ob-
served. According to the author, Th. elegans is the only fungus
known which can be induced to form this or that sporangium, or none
at all, by means of purely external, known conditions. He believes
the production of the first type is due to substrata in which nitrogen-
ous substances preponderate and fats and carbohydrates are present
in only small quantities, and that the second type is due to the reverse
of these conditions. The paper contains 24 pages and is illustrated by
a double plate.— Erwin F. Smith.

Germination of Refractory Spores.— In spite of every effort, it
occasionally happens that the spores of a fungus refuse to germinate
either in water or artificial media. This is true of various oospores,
teleutospores and ascospores, and particularly and notably of the basi-
diospores of the whole group of the Gastromycetes, scarcely anything
being known of the early stages of species of this group, owing to this
fact. Recently, Dr. Jacob Eriksson, of Stockholm, has tried cold on a
number of uredospores and secidiospores with partial success. His
method consists in placing the spores for several hours on blocks of ice
or in a refrigerator at temperatures ranging down to minus 10° C. In
a number of instances spores which refused to germinate in water at
room temperatures, either wholly or in great part, did so freely and
speedily after being on ice or in a refrigerator. In other cases the
cold appeared harmful or without sensible influence, even on the same
species. The opinion has been current for a long time that sudden great

changes in temperature favor the development of rust in cereals but
usually this has been attributed to the indirect influence of cold in
causing a deposit of dew in which tin spores could Lr<rinin;itc. In the
light of these experiments this explanation can hardly be the true one.
Spores which refused to germinate after lying in water several days
germinated readily after exposure to cold. It would seem as if the

cold were capald< of Mimulatini: lh- spore- to germinate only when the
latter have been rendered receptive by exposure to rainy weather, but
further experiments and observations are necessary. It is at least cer-
tain that the spores of jEvidium bfrbrndi*, which germinated badly
after cooling, were gathered in dry weather, while those which germi-
nated abundantly after cooling were gathered (on three different occa-
sions) after several rainy days. The fungi tried by Dr. Eriksson were
.[iridium brrberidi*, Ae. rhamni, Ae. mage?1

strobi, Uredo glumarum, U. alchemilloz, U. graminis and U. coronata.
The original paper, entitled Ueber die Forderung der Pilzsporenkei-
mung durch Kiilte, may be consulted in Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie
und Parasitenkunde, Allg., Bd. I, p. 557.— Erwin F. Smith.

Botany at the British Association. — The presidential address
of W. T. Thistleton Dyer before the new Section K (Botany) of the
British Association at the Ipswich meeting (Nature, Sept. 26, 1895) is
an exceedingly well written and interesting paper and one likely to
obtain a wide reading. It deals with such topics as the following :
Retrospect, Henslow, botanical teaching, museum arrangement, old
school of natural history, modern school, nomenclature, publications,
paleobotany, vegetable physiology, assimilation, and protoplasmic chem-
istry. The two and a half columns of sensible remarks on botanical
nomenclature are specially commendable to American readers, as also
what is said on teaching and in the last three topics of the address.

printed texts should be so largely taking the place of the careful study
of plant phenomena in many English schools, the tendency in this
country of recent years being happily in the other direction.— Erwin
F. Smith.

Nitrifying Organisms.— Messrs. Burri and Stutzer, of the agri-
cultural experimental station in Bonn, have discovered a bacillus (See
Centrb.f. Bah. u. Par. Allg., Bd. I, No. 20-21, 1895) capable of chang-
ing nitrites into nitrates and in many respects resembling Winograd-
sky's organism, but which grows readily in bouillon and on gelatine.
This bacillus is much larger than the measurements given by Wino-

66 The American Naturalist. [Tanuary,

gradsky ; like his it is incapable of converting salts of ammonia into
nitrate, but unlike his is motile (when taken from colonies on gelatine
or silicates), stains readily, causes slow liquefaction of gelatine, and is
not yellowish but varies from colorless to bluish when grown on silli-
cates. The chemical activity is almost exactly the same as that of
Winogradsky's bacillus and these authors, who have been studying the
subject for two years, seem to think that it may after all turn out to be
the same organism, the differences being less important than would
seem at first sight, and resting perhaps on incomplete observations.
The most important distinction appears to be the ability of this organ-
ism to grow on organic substances, but it does not appear from Wino-
gradsky's publications whether he tried to transfer his organism from
sillicate-plate cultures to bouillon, or gelatine, and failed.— Erwin F.

Relation of Sugars to the Growth of Bacteria.— Unques-
tionably the most discriminating and important paper that has yet ap-
peared on this subject is a recent one, Ueber die Bedeutung des Zuck-
ers in Kulturmedien fur Bakterien (Centrb. f. Bah. u. Par., Med., Bd.
XVIII, No. 1), by Dr. Theobald Smith, now of Harvard. Reference
is made to the literature of the subject but this is contradictory and
many of Dr. Smith's interesting conclusions are largely or wholly the
result of his own laborious and brilliant researches. The propositions
are stated clearly and it is safe to say that hereafter no one will un-
dertake the study of bacterial fermentation and gas production without
first consulting this paper. The author's summary is as follows, but
many things are not mentioned in this and the whole paper will repay
the careful perusal of all who have groped about in this field of bac-
teriology : (1) In ordinary meat bouillon, souring and gas formation
are only observed when sugar is present. Dextrose is the sugar most
commonly attacked and muscle sugar is probably identical with it. (2)
The formation of acid results from the breaking up of the sugar ; the
formation of alkali in the presence of oxygen results, on the contrary,
from the multiplication of the bacteria themselves. So far as tested,
the production of acid is common to all anaerobic bacteria (facultative
or obligate). (3) Facultative anserobiosis is made possible by the pres-
ence of sugar. (4) Rauschbrand and tetanus bacilli grew in fermenta-
tion tubes only when sugar was present. In test tubes containing the
same sugar bouillon multiplication was never seen. (5) As far as
tested, all gas-forming species produce along with C02 an explosive gas.
(6) Souring as well as the production of gas are valuable diagnostic

189.;.] Zoology. 67

characters, when at least three sorts of sugar are tested (with exclusion
of muscle sugar). (7) Not only must the formation of gas be deter-
mined but also the progress of the same, the total quantity, and the
quantity of C02. (8) For the differentiation of species and varieties
it is of value to determine by titration the total amount of acid in 1 per
cent sugar bouillon, as well as the germicidal power of such cultures on
the bacteria themselves. (9) The division of bacteria into acid and
alkali producers must be given up and the conditions govering the pro-
duction of acid investigated more critically for each species. (10) The
existence of f-rmentable carbohydrates in the digestive tract and in the
fluids of the ho.lv is probably very favorable to the establishment and
multiplication of pathogenic bacteria (both facultative amerohic and
obligate, especially the latter). — Erwin F. Smith.

Algal Parasite on Coffee.— Under the title Cephalenrus coffeoz,
eine neue parasitische Chroolepidee, Dr. F. A. F. C. Went describes in
Ccntrb.f. Bak. u. Par., Allg., Bd. I, No. 18-19, 1895, p. 681, an alga
which he has found attacking the Liberian coffee at Kagok-Tegal in
Java. This parasite appears on the leaves and berries in the form of
round orange-brown spots which look bristly to the naked eye. The
alga not only forms a thallus on the surface but sends its threads deep
into the intercellular spaces of the host. The presence of the parasite
in and on the leaf causes an interesting, protective hypertrophy of the
surrounding tissue, the further progress of the alga being soon limited
by a dense encircling mass of thick-walled, non-lacunose tissue, devel-
oped out of the palisade cells and spongy parenchyma of the leaf. No
algal threads were found in this tissue. The berry not being able to
defend itself in this way suffers most, becoming gradually brown and
finally black and wrinkling and drying prematurely, so that the seed
does not ripen. All parts of the alga are subject to the attacks of a
fungus, which also appears to be capable of growing in the berries apart
from the threads of the alga, but the relation of which to the latter and
to the causation of the disease is left by the author in a rather unsatis-
factory state. The paper is accompanied by a lithographic plate show-
ing details of the alga and sections of the normal and hypertrophied
tissue.— Erwin F. Smith.

ZOOLOGY,
•ius. — Although the discovery of certain peculiar
rine dates so far back as 1859, but little is known
M. Barrois has been investigating the subject

68 Tlie American Naturalist [January,

and has recently published his conclusions. According to his account
Hassall was the first to detect this microscopic creature in its chosen habi-
tat. He described it under the name of Bodo nrinarnis, as an animalcula
i-sins inch long and yfcg inch wide, of rapid motion, generally round or
oval, presenting a granular appearance, sometimes they are broader at
one end. The long lashes, by means of which they move, are variable
in number and proceed when there are two or three to each animalcule
from opposite extremities ; reproduction by longitudinal fission. In
1885 Kunstler found "small monads .... flagellate, transparent and
very active .... probably Bodo urinarius."

In reviewing the subject, M. Barrois gives detailed accounts of these
discoveries, and of the condition of the urine in which they appear. He
then describes his own methods of investigation, and compares the
drawings of specimens, after Hasslar and Kuntsler, with the infusoria
he himself had found existing under similar conditions as those de-
scribed by the authors mentioned. M. Barrois lays particular stress
upon the fact that the infusoria found by him, only appeared in urine
plainly alkaline, which contained animal matter (broken down epithelial
cells, pus, albumen), and which had been exposed sometime to the air.
In no case did he find them in fresh urine. Hassall's notes show a similar
set of conditions in his case. Kunstler, however, claims to have found
the infusoria in fresh urine in company with several species of bacteria.
M. Barrois is of the opinion that Kunstler^ was deceived as to the age
of the urine given him for examination, since in all other respects the
conditions (as to animal matter, etc.) agree with those of Hassler and
the author. In view of these condition- M. Barrois does not agree with
the statement made that Bodo urinarins is a parasite. He is rather of
the opinion that it exists in the air in a spore-like form ready to devel-
op whenever it is brought in contact with a suitable nidus. This it
finds in urine conditioned as above described.

In the course of his discussion, M. Barrois refers to Trichomonas
vaginalis Doune, found by Salisbury in the urine and vaginal mucous
of a young girl aged sixteen, supposed to be parasitic, and to certain
Trichomonads found by Marchand and also by Miura ; in all probability
T. vaginali*. In the two latter cases, the infusoria was found living in
freshly voided urine, so it would appear to be a true parasite. In both
cases the urine ua- loaded with decomposing matter.

By an ingenious experiment, Miura demonstrated that the Trichom-
onads lived in the urethra oiilv, and was not found in the bladder.

As to the classification of the Monads, M. Barrois considers it ex-
. dispantioa of

1896.] Zoology.

the flagella. In fact, Bodo urinaria*, by reason of its polvmorpl

found in both fresh and ss.lt water f.uiisiiiiiiiir vegetable debris.
finds the three speeirs -.. similar in appearance, .l,at one mi-ht infer

and long duration of cold, during the !a>: winter, exercised upon the
marine fauna of the coasts of France.

Sharp frosts, at the time of high tide, would destroy innumerable
quantities of animals that the ebb tide would leave exposed. Annelids,
Actinans and Fish were found dead or unconscious, paralyzed by the
cold. This mortality, strange to say, extended to depths which the
change of temperature could not have affected directly.

Another effect of the cold has been to bring in shore animals ordina-
rily seen in deeper water, and also certain species very rare or entirely
unknown in our fauna. The Spring was marked by an extraordinary
abundance of Balanus porcatus, which covered with a continuous bed
the surface of the boulders and rocks, and by the return of the Mussels
which had nearly disappeared. During some weeks Mytilus edulis
took possession of all the rocks exposed to the southwest wind and
formed veritable "moulieres" at Dent, Pointe de Reville and at
Draguet. Parallel changes are noticed in the annelid fauna. Thus
certain species which were common last year have either become rare,
or totally extinct, while new species are continually taking their places.
(Revue Scientif., 1895, p. 374.)

Preliminary Outline of a New Classification of the Family
Muricidae. By F. C. Baker (Bull. Chicago Acad. Sciences, 1895).
On reading this paper we regret to find that Mr. Baker has been put-
ting his new wine into old bottles. In other words, he has borrowed
largely from the phraseology of a conchological paper published in
1892, as the following parallel passages show :

' 0 The American Naturalist [January,

Pilsbry, 1892. | Baker, 1895.

" For several years the writer I " For several years the writer
has been accumulating data bear- I has been accumulating data bear-
ing upon the natural classifica- ing upon the natural classifica-
tion of the Helicoid land snails- tion of the Gastropod family
It has been thought desirable to Muricidje. It has been thought
place before students of this desirable to place before students
group some of the general results some of the results elucidated,
attained, and to invite their and to invite their friend lv critic-
friendly criticism, ism.

" * * * the author's aim | " The author's aim in the pres-
being simply to place before mal- j entpaper has been simply to place
acologists the outlines of a classi- \ before malacologists the outline
fication essentially modern and of a classification essentially mod-

essentially original."1 | era and essentially original."

1 The above quotation is from Pilsbry's Preliminary Outline of a New Classifica-
tion of the Helices, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1892, p. 387. Good taste should
have forbidden the reproduction by Mr. B. of the second paragraph here quoted,

to the 1892 publication. This excuse seems to be lacking in the caL'o^Mr"
Baker's paper.

More to the same effect might be quoted, but the above is sufficient
on this score.

We do not wish to imply that there is any great harm in using bor-
rowed phrases ; they are not copyrighted, and their original author
probably does not expect to make use of the same sentences again ; but,
still, if anybody has ideas worth expression, they surely ought to be
worthy of fresh verbiage.

In regard to Baker's subfamilies, we do not see that they differ from
those of Tryon and Fischer, except that Baker includes Coralliopkila
and its allies as a third subfamily. As this group lacks teeth, it seems
much better to treat it as a family. In this connection it may be well
to state that La\iaxis mawce is not a monstrosity as Baker's foot-note
(p. 188) would seem to imply.

The diagnoses of subfamilies given are rather absurd in view of their
contents, which contradict every word of the descriptions. Not all the
genera placed in ** Muricince" have spinous or foliated varices, not all
have the nucleus of operculum apical, and not all have few cusps on
the rhachidian teeth. What is the use, then, of such a " subfamily ? "
Among the genera we notice, on a cursory inspection, that Mttrex
tenuispina Lamarck is quoted as type of Murex Linne. How can

is»6.] Zoology. 71

Lamarck's species, published a half century later than Linnaeus' genus,
be the type of that genus ? The type of Pterorhytis Conrad (" Ptero-
hytis" Baker) is not Oeinebra nuttalli Conr. but Murex umbrifer.
Other mistakes of this nature occur, but we have not space to notice

The citation of the pre-Linnsean "genera "of Klein is contrary to all
codes of nomenclature recognized by modern zoologists, and the con-
tinuation of such anomalies is to be deprecated. In retaining Tribuhu,
Pmtadaetglw, etc., as of Klein, Mr. Baker is clearly in error.

Most, if not all of the innovations in nomenclature proposed in this
paper, are borrowed from Fischer and Dall. We find no new facts in
regard to either soft anatomy or shell structure in lhe entire article, so
that Mr. Baker's claims for originalty and modernness do not seem suf-
ficiently apparent to call for special remark. — H. A. Pilsbry.

Herpetology of Angola.— The Herpetology of the Portugese pos-
session in Western Africa, just published by Barboza du Bocage at Lis-
bon comprises descriptions of 185 species, distributed as follows ; Chel-
onia 10, Loricata •>, Sauri:i ~u . Ophidia 74, Batrachia41. Ofthespec-
imens described, 62 species and varieties belong exclusively to the fauna
of Angola and Congo. In order to better appreciate the relation which
the herpetological fauna of these two areas bears to that of the rest of
Africa, a table of the geographical distribution of the species described
is given and forms an important adjunct to the paper. A number of
new specie- are described, and synonymy is corrected. The paper is
handsomely illustrated, and forms an important contribution to the
knowledge of the subject.

Among the points of interest embraced in the paper are the discovery
of the new species: Najn ■ ■ ;',<fiis. Ylprru herald-

ica and Python anehieta >,; the southern range of the West African
Odeolcemiu tetraspes, Feyllnii currovil, Atheri tquamigera, and
Hylambates aubryi ; the northern range of the South African Mannas
macrolepis, Zonarus cordylns, etc. and westward range of the central
African Oatmts resimus.

Zoological News. ;Birds. — In regard to the question of the value
of the forms of the tongues of birds for classification, Mr. F. A. Lucas
concludes that in the Woodpeckers the evidence favors the view that
the modifications of the tongue are directly related to the character of
the food, and are not of value for classification. (Bull. No. 7. Div.
Ornith. and Mam. U. S. Dept. Agric, 1895.)

72 The American Naturalist. [January,

In the study of the hyoid bone of certain parrots, Mr. Mivart finds
that the whole order of Psittaci is distinguished from every other order
of birds by the shape of its hyoid. The distinctive characters are (1)
Basihyal much broadened posteriorly. (2) Basihyal developing on
either side a forward Iy and upwardly directed process. (3"> An os ento-
glossum in the form of a single broad bone with a considerable central
foramen, or, in the form of two lateral parts, entoglossals, medianly
united in front by cartilage and leaving a vacant space between this and
their attachment behind to the basihyal. (Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London,
1895, p. 162.)

Mammals. — Mr. Outram Bangs distinguishes the Skunks of east-
ern North America as follows :

Mrphitis mejih'di-n (Shaw), ranging through the Hudsonian and
Canadian zones of the east, south to about Massachusetts.

Mephitis mephitica elongata (Bangs), found in Florida and the south-
ern Atlantic states and ranges north to about Connecticut.

Both of these species differ from the western skunks, which form a
separate group.

Among the latter the author recognizes Richardson's Mephitis amer-
icana var. hudsonica as a good species which must therefore bear the
name M. hudsonica (Richardson). It is the largest of all the skunks,
and has an extensive range in the northern prairies, extending east as
far as Minnesota. (Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXVI.)

ENTOMOLOGY.1
Insects in the National Museum. — The staff of the Depart-

a result of the sad death of the former Honorary Curator, Professor C.
V. Riley.

The reorganization has been effected by the appointment of Mr. L.
O. Howard, Entomologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, to
the position of Honorary Curator to the Department of Insects ; of
Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead to the position of Custodian of Hymenoptera,
and Mr. D. W. Coquillett to the position of Custodian of Diptera. All
museum custodians are honorary officers. Mr. M. L. Linell will re-
main as general assistant to the Honorary Curator.

The Department is, at present, in excellent working condition. It
contains a very great amount of material in all orders, and, in many

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

Qdente, field age
ogy, U. S. Deps
o) The greater j

(9) The bulk of the collection, in all order., of the late II. K. Mor-

(10) The collection of Diptera of the late Edward Burgess.

(11) The type collection of Syrphidae made by Dr. S. W. Williston.

(12) The collection of Ixodidse of the late Dr. George Marx.

(13) The collection of Myriopoda of the late C. H. Bollman.

(14) Sets of the neo-tropical collections of Herbert Smith.

(15) The collection of Hyraenoptera of Win. J. Fox.

(16) The collection of Tineina of Win. Beutenmuller.

(17) The large Japanese collection, in all orders, of Dr. K. Mitsu-
kuri.

(18) The African collections, in all orders, of Dr. W. S. Abbott,
Wm. Astor Chanler, J. F. Brady, the last " Eclipse " expedition to
West Africa, and of several missionaries.

(19) The large collection from South California of D. W. Coquillett,
in Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera.

(20) The Townend Glover manuscripts and plates.

In addition to this material, there are minor collections which have
been the result of the work of government expeditions, or are gifts
from United States Consuls and many private individuals.

This enormous mass of material is being cared for by the active and
honorary forces of the Department, and the perpetuity of the collection
is assured. The National Museum building is fireproof, and this,
together with the fact that it is a national institution, renders the De-
partment of Insects perhaps the best place in this country for the per-
manent deposits of types by working specialists in entomology, and for
the ultimate resting-place of large collections made by individuals.

74 The American Naturalist. [January,

The policy of the Museum at large, with regard to the use of its col-
lections by students, is a broad and liberal one. Students are welcome
in all departments, and every facility is given to systematists of recog-
nized standing.

On the Girdling of Elm Twigs by the Larvae of Orgyia
leucostigma, and its Results.2— The white-marked tussock-moth
Orgyia leucostigma, has, for a long term of years, been exceedingly de-
structive to the foliage of the elms, horse-chestnut and fruit trees in
Albany. Fruit trees of considerable size have been killed by their
defoliation within a few days, toward the maturity of the caterpillar.
Large elms and horse-chestnuts have had the foliage entirely consumed,
only the ribs and principal veins remaining.

In the summer of 1883, a new form of attack by this insect was ob-
served by me in Albany. About the middle of June of that year, the
sidewalks, streets and public parks where the white elm, Ulmus ameri-
cana was growing, were seen to be thickly strewn with the tips of elms
two to three inches in length, bearing from four to ten fresh leaves, and
comprising nearly all of the new growth of the season. On examina-
tion, it was found that above the point where the tips had been broken
off, the bark had been removed for an extent averaging about TV of an
inch, apparently by an insect.

As the Orgyia larva? were then occurring in abundance on the trees,
they were suspected as being the authors of this injury, and the suspi-
cion was verified by ascending to a house-top, where the roof was
found to be heaped in the corners with the severed tips, and the cater-
pillars engaged upon the branches in the girdling. The explanation
of the breaking-offwas simple. With the removal of the bark, the
decorticated portion— not exceeding, in many instances, in thickness
the diameter of a large pin — dried, and becoming brittle, was readily
broken by a moderate swaying of the wind.

The girdling of the twigs in this manner could serve the Orgyia no
such purpose as attends the girdling of several other insects, as the
Elaphidion primers of oaks and maples, where it enables the insect to
attain greater security for its transformations through this method of
reaching the ground, or the Oncideres twig-girdler, where the dead
wood affords suitable food for the larva. Probably the conditions of
grow tli .luring the spring of this year were such as to render the young
bark at the point attacked particularly attractive to the lame; but
why, after feeding upon it to so limited an extent, it should cease' and
resume its feeding on the leaves, can not be explained. In a few in-
:iation for the Advancement of Science, at its
. 3, 1895.

Entomology.

75

stances where the twigs had become detached quite near the node
marking the commencement of the year's growth, the bark bad been
irregularly eaten for an inch or more in extent.

While the Orgyia is a serious pest in Albany, it has its years of re-
markable abundance and of comparative scarcity. Girdled tips, as
above described, have been seen each year since 1883, but by no means
corresponding in number to the degree of abundance of the caterpillar.
Mv attention had not been drawn to them the present year, until much

•

(2 1st of August), many tips of unusual length and with perfectly fresh
leaves were collected from beneath a large American elm. Each one
had broken at the base of the girdling, which had probably been quite
near the node of the year's growth. They were of special interest from
their great length, varying from 10 to 18 inches. From the growth
they had attained, it was evident that the girdling had not been done
in the spring or early summer, but in the late summer after the usual
brood had completed its transformations. It was clearly the work of a
second brood of the insect, and this was confirmed by my having seen,
a few days previously from a house-top, while making observations on
the elm leaf beetle, the Orgyia larva about one-half grown.

A distinct second brood of the Orgyia has not been recorded in
Albany, although it is known to be double-brooded in Washington and
Philadelphia, and probably in Brooklyn, and has also been observed
in Boston. The present year, however, has been an exceptional one in
the remarkable abundance, the rapid development, and the injurious-
ness of several of our more common insect pests.

Another interesting feature connected with these tips was the illus-
tration they gave of the manner in which woody structure is built up
—the sap ascending through the sap-wood, and, alter us assimilation in
the leaves, returning through the inner bark and depositing its organ-
ized material. The bark above the girdling, in healing m a rough and
irregular manner, had swollen out at this point in a bulbous-like en-
largement, showing very clearly the arrest and deposit of the returning
sap consequent on the absence of its natural channels, and the drying
and the death of the decorticated wood below it. In a specimen
gathered in which the node of the preceeding year remained attached
to the fallen twig, the diameter of the new growth above the bulb was
at least twice that of the starved node below.

This peculiar form of Orgyia attack has not been seen upon the
horse chestnut, maple, apple or plum, or any of its other food-plants.

J. A. LlNTXER.

Albany, N. Y.

The American Naturalist.

EMBRYOLOGY.1

Experimental Embryology. Recent numbers of Roux's

Archiv fur Entwickelungsmechanik contain numerous additions to our
knowledge of the possibilities resident in the early stages of the devel-
opment of animals, possibilities unsuspected till direct experimental
interference made them evident.

T. H. Morgan of Bryn Maur presents evidence8 to show that two
blastulae of the sea urchin, Sphsereehinus, may fuse together and form
one embryo. When eggs are shaken just after fertilization they may
loose their membranes and afterwards some of the resulting blastuhe
are found to have twice the normal size though otherwise like the usual
blastulae in appearance. Such large blastulaj are stated to arise from
the fusion of two common blastulse.

Notwithstanding this complete fusion the future development of such
enlarged blastulae gives evidence of their dual origin. At the gastrula
stage two invaginations are formed.

One may be much the greater and the two may not appear at the
same time. The two invaginations stand in no fixed relation to one
another and may appear in all parts of the compounded blastula.

Later the larva that develops from two fused blastula? tends to
develop two sets of arms and two systems of skeletal rods, but those
accompanying the lesser invagination are much reduced in size and
less perfect than the rods associated with the main invagination.

A second paper3 by the same worker records a variation in the
cleavage of the above sea urchin when some of the eggs were shaken.

While most of the eggs divide into 2, 4, 8 and 16 cells some were
found to divide at once into three. These 3 cells are elongated parallel
to the planes that produced them. When they next divide they all do
so lengthwise, in flat contradiction to " Hertwig's law." These six
equal cells lie in a plane at right angles to the two cleavage planes
that have produced them.

Such eggs may develop into gastrula?. They form six small cells or
ie pole of the mass in place of the normal four. The
• thinks " a micromere field must have been present in the egg

$96.] Embryology.

Eggs that have not been shaken sometimes divide at <

In both these unusual forms of cleavage the author finds that the
three or the four archoplasmic centres present in the egg take unequal
numbers of chromosomes. Thus in one case one centre was accom-
panied by 17, another by 14, another by 33 and the fourth by 0
chromosomes.

That this inequality is greater in the fourfold than in the three-fold
division explains, the author suggests, the fact that fewer eggs develop
from the four- fold than from the three-fold cleavage.

A third paper* gives a detailed account of the partial larvae obtained
when the eggs of Sphferechiuus are shaken into fragments. Very min-
ute gastrulse only b1? part of the volume of a normal gastrula are thought
to come from isolated pieces with ?V to & the volume of the whole
egg-
It is found that the number of cells in such small blastula? is less
than the normal number and roughly proportional to the size of the
blastula.

The size of the nuclei, and probably of the cells also, is less in the
small blastulse than in the normal ones.

If one of first two cells of a cleaving egg be isolated it may form a
blastula with i the normal number of cells. One of the first four cells
gives a blastula with J the normal number, or with a little more than
i ; while one of the first eight cells when isolated produces a blastula
with more than I the normal number.

Such blastulae will develop into gastrula}.

A piece of the wall of a blastula when broken off* by shaking may
develop into a gastrula.

The little blastuke formed from fragments of eggs tend to invaginate
as many cells as possible up to the normal number for a normal

These remarkable numerical relations lead the author to suppose that
the reason why isolated cells of later stages in cleavage are not able to
develop by themselves lies not in any differentiation of nuclear sub-
stance but in the fact that such cells being themselves the results of a
series of cleavages cannot produce cells enough for the next stages of
development.

Morgan and Driesch publish conjointly5 their reinvestigation
of the remarkable halflarvae obtained by Chun.

78 The American Naturalist. [January,

Chun's work was done 18 years ago and was, as stated in a letter to
Eoux ;6 as follows.

When the first two cells of the eggs of the lobate Ctenophore, Bolina
hydatina were separated by shaking each developed as a halflarva with
four ribs or bands of locomoter appendages instead of the normal eight,
two entodermal sacs in place of four and only one tentacle in place of

The first cleavage plane coincides with the sagittal plane of the adult
and the second with the transverse.

Half-larvse with 4 ribs, 4 meridional vessels one tentacle and an
oblique stomach may become sexually mature, developing eggs and sperm
under the two subventral meridional vessels!

The missing half is regenerated during the postembryonic metamor-

Driesch and Morgan worked on another Ctenophore, a nontentacul-
ated form, Bero'e ovata and finding it impossible to employ the shaking
method cut the eggs with special scissors.

Isolated cells of the two cell stage develop into blastulae, gastrulse
and finally into larva that are most remarkable in being neither com-
plete nor halflarva? but larva? deficient in certain organs.

The cleavage of such an isolated cell is much as it would be if still
associated with the other cell in a normal egg : it is a half cleavage as
compared with a normal egg. This, however, is not true of the cells
that form the ectoderm but only of the peculiar group of cells forming
the entoderm. The former cells grow over the half-group of entoderm
ceils and form a larva that is complete on the surface.

The final larva is abnormal in usually having only 4 ribs instead of
8 and 3 pouches instead of 4.

A second series of experiments seems to throw much light upon the
influence of protoplasm versus nucleus in the causation of such imper-
fect development.

When a piece of the protoplasm of an entire egg is cut off, the egg,
deprived of some protoplasm but with it nucleus intact, as far as known,
develops into a larva that may be deficient in just the same way as is a
larva reared from one of the isolated cells.

In another paper7 Morgan finds the shaking method will not succeed
with the blastulae of Sphserechinus as they die when shaken. In
Echinus, however, both blastulae and gastrulae may be shaken into
pieces that will live.

6 rdem, Oct. 25.95, pps. 444-447.

7 Idem, pps. 257-266.

1896.] Embryology. 79

When pieces of the wall of the Echinus blastula are broken off they
may form little blastula again and these may gastrulate. When these
little blastulae invaginate they tend to form more entoderm cells, in pro-
portion to the entire number, than is the case in the normal blastula.

In Sphaerechinus the normal blastula has about 500 cells and tends
to invaginate about 50 ; in Echinus about the same fraction of the whole
is invaginated, for of about 1000 cells about 100 go in to form the

When young gastrula? are shaken they may form abnormal Lame
owing, apparently, to changes in the mesoderm inducing abnormal
skeletal growths and corresponding abnormal arms.

Pieces shaken out of the wall of a gastrula will not form into a blas-
tula nor into a gastrula.

Likewise the entoderm when shaken out does not develop. Yet a
gastrula that has had its entoderm removed by shaking will continue
to grow and form a normal skeleton and arms.

A paper8 on cross fertilization and the fertilization of non-nucleated
pieces of eggs also by Morgan goes over part of the ground of Boveri's
remarkable work.

It is shown that small pieces of eggs of Echinus miliaris may be fer-
tilized and develop as far as to the 16 cell stage. As the number of
chromosomes in such cleaving masses is, in each nucleus, half the nor-
mal number it is inferred that such cleaving masses are the results of
the entrance of one spermatozoa into a non-nucleated piece of an egg.

In attempting to cross fertilize pieces of eggs of Sphaerechinus with
sperm of Echinus it was found that the sperm entered the pieces only
in few cases ; there is the same difficulty in crossing pieces of eggs as
in crossing the whole egg with foreign sperm. The reverse is also the
case; sperm of Sphaarechinus will not readily enter pieces of eggs of
Echinus.

It is, therefore not surprising that no larvae were found that could be
traced to non-nucleated pieces of eggs fertilized by a sperm of another
species, which is.the great desideratum in attempting to repeat Boveri's

When the whole eggs of Sphaerechinus are fertilized by sperm of
Echinus bastards result that are very variable and not all exact middle
states between the larva* of these two species. When the converse cross
is attempted the larvaa are " for the most part very abnormal in appear-
When the eggs of Spluerechinus are crossed with the^perm of Stron-
gylocentratus the larva is \
"Idem, pps. 268-280-

80 The American Naturalist. [January,

The converse bastards also show great variation in the skeleton.

Boveei9 republishes, is an amplified form with many new illustrations,
his remarkable work on the cross-fertilization of enucleated fragments
of sea urchin eggs, translated in the American Naturalist March 1,
1893. After considering the opposing results obtained by Morgan and
bySeeliger the author still maintains that he has shown that a larva
may be obtained from a piece of an egg without any nucleus and sperm
of another species and that such a larva has none of the maternal char-
acters but only those of the male parent, thus showing that the nucleus
may transmit characters but that egg cytoplasm alone cannot do so.

The evidence for his conclusions is, however, of an inferential
nature and a cautious jury may well hesitate before convicting Boveri
of having deprived the cytoplasm of its share in the affairs of heredity.

The evidence as he now presents it seems to be about as follows.

1. When at Naples in 1889 he shook a lot of sea urchin eggs, Echinus
microtuberculatus in a testtube many were broken into pieces of various
sizes, with or without nuclei ; when this collection was treated with
sperm of the same species larvte of all sizes down to A of the normal
were found.

2. When pieces that contain no nucleus, as far as could be seen
under the microscope, were isolated and fertilized with sperm of the same
species they developed into dwarf larvae.

3. When the normal eggs of Sphrcerchinus granularis are treated
with the sperm of Echinus microtuberculatus some few bastards result.
In Boveri's original experiment all these bastards were half way between
the larvae of the parent species, both in external form and in the skele-
ton, which were very different in each pure larvae form.

4. When the eggs of E. microtuberculatus are shaken and treated
with sperm of the same species the larvae present many abnormalities
and some may have characters resembling those of another species.

5. When shaken eggs of S. granularis are treated with sperm of E.
microtuberculatus large and small larvae are formed ; some few of the
small ones, only a wery few, 10 or 12 in all, were entirely of the
Echinus or father type.

6. It was observed that the nuclei in any given area of a larva
formed from a nonnucleated piece of Echinus egg and the sperm of the
same species were, on the aver<iye, -mailer than the nuclei in the corre-
sponding area of a smaller larva formed from a nucleated piece.

7. The above few bastard larvae of pure Echinus type had, on the
average, smaller nuclei than similar larvse of type intermediate between
the two crossed parent.

9 Idem, Oct. 22, 1895, pps. 394-441.

1896.] Embryology. 81

The author maintains that the few dwarf bastards that were like the
male parent came from nonnucleated pieces of Sphaereehinus penetrated
by a sperm of Echinus. This, however, is an indirect result of all the
above facts, It should also be borne in mind that Morgan, as cited
above, was not successful in obtaining a cross fertilization of enucleated
fragments and that both Morgan and Seeliger10 find the bastards
between Sphaerechinus and Echinus so variable that Boveri's experi-
ment in which they appeared as exact intermediate forms seem an
exception and hence may be withdrawn from the evidence.

Hans Driesch starting from the standpoint that it has been proved
that isolated cleavage cells may produce an entire organism seeks to
find where the limits of this power appear in the subsequent stages of
development.

He cut blastulse of Sphaerechinus into pieces, chopping at random
with scissors in a dish full of gastrulae. When isolated the larger pieces
formed gastrulae or later larvae, in most cases.

When the gastrulae of the starfish, Asterias glacialis were cut in the
same way some lost the inner end of the gastric invagination together
with much ectoderm. After healing over the wound the new end of
the gastric invagination enlarged and sprouted out the two ccelomic
pouches that would have, normally, been formed from the part that was
cut away : the power to form coelemic pouches was thus vicariously
assumed by a part that would normally have produced part of the
definitive digestive tract. Such larvae go on to form a normally three
chambered digestive tract from what would, normally, have formed but
part of the whole.

The author concludes that the powers of the ectoderm or of the ento.
derm cells are as yet not restricted as to what organs or parts they may
form in their proper germ layer.

When larva; with the mesenchyme were cut and a piece with only
ectodermal cells was isolated in 53 cut of 99 cases no gastrulation took
place but only a healing of the wound though life and activity might
last for a week.

In a few cases when the digestive tube was removed from such larvae
it did not grow but died after a few days. In 19 cases where the end
of the gastric invagination was removed after it had enlarged and
sprouted out the coelemic pouches 17 did not form new ccelemic pouches.
In like manner when a cut happened to remove the skeleton of one side
it was not formed again.

We thus soon come to a state in which the primitive tendency of
cells to replace others in organ formation seems lost.

10 See American Naturalist, March, 1895. 6

82 The American Naturalist.

In all these cases the author will not grant that any true regeneration
of lost parts takes place.

In the course of his discussion of the influence of yolk upon gastrula-
tion Paul Samassa" states that he has performed the following ex-
periments upon frogs' eggs.

The eggs were injured, without breaking the egg membrane, by an
induction shock applied from needle points to certain cells or groups of
cells in the eight-cell stage of cleavage.

When the four vegetative cells are injured there may result a cell
mass lying in two layers upon a mass of yolk and evidently represent-
ing, as seen in actions, a normal gastrula minus parts of its ectodermal
structures. On the other hand injury to the animal cells results in a
mass of cells lying near an inert mass of matter and possibly repre-
senting only entodermal cells.

These facts are interpreted as meaning that the animal or the vegeta-
tive cells may continue their development for sometime independently
of life, or at least of the perfect state, of the other cells.

These eggs die without reforming the injured parts by post-
generation.

In an extensive theoretical part of the paper the author places him-
self in the main, on the side of Hertwig as believing in epigenesis rather
than in any form of preformation.

The last paper that we can notice here is that of Amedeo Hekl-
izka12 who succeeded in tying a thread about the eggs of Triton crista-
tus in such a way as to completely separate the first two cleavage cells.

Hertwig compressed eggs by this method so that they formed hour-
glass shaped masses a single embryo finally resulted.

But in these experiments where the egg is separated into two distinct
halves each develops by itself. From one half of the egg there results
an embryo that may live to have a medullary tube and a notochord.
This embryo was formed by a process of cleavage like that of an entire
egg and not like the cleavage of half an egg.

The author holds that neither Weismann's nor any other ideas of pre-
formation will suffice to explain such phenomena, but that we must
accept some form of epigenesis.

He thinks that each of the first two cells is totipotent and normally
makes half of the embryo when in the normal union with its fellow be-
cause of some inhibition of its power to produce the whole. In a case
of postgeneration we might suppose that this inhibition was removed
for a while and then resumed.

ANTHROPOLOGY.1

Discoveries at Caddington, England, by Mr. Worthing-
ton G. Smith.— M. Renach informed the writer at the St. Germain
Museum, in 1893, that a hermit was needed in France to live in the
Drift Gravel Quarries and pounce upon chipped blades as they were
brought to light in the excavations. This was to illuatrate the fact
that about four-fifths of the alleged paleolithic implements on exhi-
bition in France were either found on the surface and not in place in
the gravels, or bought by collectors, professors of geology and curators
of museums, as I bought mine from workmen at the gravel pits.

Nevertheless, there is sufficient evidence of a Plistocene blade
chipper in western Europe to satisfy the American critic who will take
nothing on faith, and the best of this in recent years is embodied in the
work of Mr. F. G. Spurrell, who found a stone blade workshop of
Plistocene age under drift gravel at Crayford, England, and in the
indefatigable explorations of Mr. W. G. Smith at North London (Stoke
Newington) and at Caddington, Bedfordshire.

" Man, the Primeval Savage," by Worthington G. Smith, London
(Edward Stanford, 27 Cockspur St.", Charing Cross, 1894), tells of the
striking discoveries made by the latter in some brick-kiln pits on a hill
top near Caddington. These cuttings through the drift, discovered by
tracing up relic bearing road ballast t<> its source, and watched for six
years, during which time they were often filled with water or aban-
doned by workmen at critical moments, revealed what Mr. Smith calls
a Paleolithic floor or older surface on which rested a stone blade work-
shop of Plistocene Age. This was covered by a mantle fiveto ten feet
thick, of contorted drift, unfortunately containing no animal remains,
that here overspreads the hill, and developed upon examination the
following interesting and novel facts '

1. The blade factory was undisturbed, thus presenting an MSOciaUon
of artifical obje< ts full ..f rigniticance and duplicating the results of Mr.
Spurrell at Crayford. Other discoverers had found scattered and
isolated specimens in the gravel, here the raw material, the blades more
or less finished, the chips and the tools lay just as the Post-Glacial
workmen had left them.

2. To the envy of the ordinary searcher for isolated objects in the
drift, this range "of specimens from one place included scrapers worked

»The department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna , Phila.

84 The American Naturalist.

[.Imii,

ie side, well specialized leaf-shaped blades, either worked all round
arpened to points, " punches," knife-shaped blades, hammer stones,

nvils," flaked cores and nodules worked i

i exception a

3. Discovered blocks of raw material, flint nodules with chalk still
adhering to them, showing that the workmen had pulled them out of
neighboring flint bearing chalk beds, lay in piles at the site.

4. Several large nodules had been sharpened at one end, leaving the
rest of the nodular surface untouched.

5. The hammer stones found were not the numerous oval flint peb-
bles lying about the site and showing no signs of pounding (though
they had been brought to the spot by workmen), but less regular frag-
ments of flint, sometimes knocked into shape and scored with the
marks of battering. Sometimes they weighed from five to six pounds.

6. Large flint masses, called by Mr. Smith "anvil stones," were
found, showing slight traces of bruising, whicn, owing to slight' doubts
of the explorer, were not preserved.

7. The punches discovered were thin, stalactite shaped nodules,
bruised at both ends, weighing sometimes a pound or more, which with
"fabricators," pieces of nicked flint used for flaking, in the explorer's
opinion, were found mixed with the blade refuse. As opposed to Mr.
Smith's view of flaking by means of stone punches and " fabricators,"

I the North An

, when working under simi-

lar circumstances, used bone, tho

how the Caddington specimens could be accurately reproduced with an

iron hammer and a broken gimlet or awl used as a punch.

8. Cores were discovered from which flakes had been worked (a) by
careful blows, (b) by smashing with heavy blocks.

9. A beautifully veined pebble, found at the spot, had been brought
there as an object of value by the ancient blade workers.

10. Several piles of apparently selected flakes were discovered.

11. A twin flake, held together by a fine, unsplit section, ready to
break at a slight jar, was found with the refuse, showing that the work-
shop site, an area probably covering nearly an acre, had been very
gently overspread with the now overlying drift-material, a deposition
which had failed to seriously disturb the situation. Mr. Smith, who
was present at the brick-pits, at short intervals, for nearly six years, in
gstbering this remarkable evidence, repeated observations previously
made by him at Stoke Newington, Common, London, where, besides
duplicates of many of the specimens referred to above, he found two
artifically pointed stakes, a scratched log and a chipped blade resting
on the scapula of a Mammoth (now on exhibition at the British Mu-

I89ts.] Anthropology. 85

seum). At another place near Caddington, he had found associated
with drift blades and in place a horde of two hundred of the bead-like
fossils (Coeinopora globularis), with holes artificially enlarged, though
at none of the sites were drawings on bone, bone needles or lance
heads discovered. One of the most interesting features of the work at
Caddington consists in what Mr. Smith calls " replacement," a process
previously invented by Mr. F. G. Spurrell, and never before, to my
knowledge, applied to drift specimens found in situ.

The two thousand two hundred and fifty-nine flakes unearthed at
Caddington were grouped according to color on small trays easily
shifted from table to table, and a laborious experimental study of them,
lasting for three years, demonstrated the interesting fact that many
sets of them fitted together, sometimes reconstructing the original
nodule on which the blade maker had worked, sometimes hedging
about hollows which, on pouring in plaster of Paris, reproduced the
form of the resultant and missing blade.

" I examined and re-examined the stones," says Mr. Smith, " almost
daily. I looked at them as a relief from other work and at times when
I was tired.

" Not only did I keep my selected stones on the tables for this length
of time, but I kept a vast number of blocks, rude pieces and flakes, on
certain undisturbed grassy places in the briek-fields for the same three
years. Whilst working upon my tables, I sometimes suddenly re-
membered one or more like examples on the grass, and at an early
opportunity, fetched them from Caddington. In making up some of
the blocks of conjoined flakes, it often happened that one or more

were never found, but in other instances, after the lapse of months, or
even more than a year, a missing piece would come to light on the
paleolithic floor. It is certain that I have not replaced all the flakes
in my collection that are capable of replacement— one reason for this
is that many flakes are very different in color and markings on one
side from what they are on the other, and it is difficult to remember
the markings on both sides. Another reason is that the time at my
disposal has not been unlimited."

All this demonstrates in a manner, as conclusive as it is novel, that
the Caddington site is an undisturbed workshop, while the analyses of
Mr. Smith and the facts described in his work— Man, the Primaeval
Savage— take precedence over all recent evidence upon the subject,
and throw a new light upon the more ancient subdivision of the Stone
Age in Europe.

$6 The American Naturalist. [January,

He who has spent earnest hours upon the problems of Plistocene
humanity would gladly have seen a department of a museum specially
devoted to these unique discoveries and demonstrations, but in a visit
to Caddington in 1894, 1 learned with regret that the series, highly
important from its entirety, and not jealously guarded as a whole, had
been dissipated for the sake of collectors who wished to illustrate cer-
tain phases of Paleolithic blade manufacture with " fine specimens."

Theory, and with it the desire to propound formula? for the blade-
making process in general, yield respectfully to these toilsome investi-
gations and to the persistent ransacking of quarries by a faithful ob-
server whose work alone answers many of the doubts of the American
student, and counteracts the questionable impression left upon the
mind of the visitors to European museums by rows of typical speci-
mens bought from workmen or gathered upon the surface.

H. C. Mercer.

Recent Explorations of Captain Theobert Maler in Yuca-
tan.—[Extract from a letter received by the editor, December 9th,
1895].— After your departure from Yucatan, I undertook an expedi-
tion to the Peten'Itza region (Guatemala), crossing the entire pensinula,

After examining the country around the great Laguna of Peten'Itza,
I embarked on a small canoe on the Rio Dela Pasi6n (" which, farther
down, is named Usumutsintla [Land of Apes, Usumatli = with rever-
ence, Ummatsin s Ape ; tla = there is, there are, place of]). Arriv-
ing, finally, after many difficulties at Tenosique (State of Tabasco),
from whence the traveler finds at his disposition small steamers plying
to Laguna del Carmen, and thence by sea to Progresso. On this jour-
ney I had the luck to discover and photograph several highly interest-
ing and unknown cities, with remarkable monuments and splendid
sculptures, some in the neighborhood of Laguna del Peten, others on
the right and left shores of the Rio Pasion ( Ummatsintla).

On my return to Ticul, I found your letters and also one from Mr.
Ashmead, which latter I answered, referring him on the subject of
aboriginal Syphilis and Lupus to some passages in the ancient Spanish

As to pottery -making, I have observed that it is the work of women
solely, who exercise the art, in my opinion, in the ancient man-
ner serving themselves nearly exclusively with the hands and feet and
without special instruments. Here at Ticul, it is easy to see them at
work, as the industry is a common one in the suburbs.

My collection of ancient earthen vessels is quite interesting, but as
you left Ticul in such a hurry I could not show them to you. Several

1896.] Anthropology. 87

of my vases have quadrangular inscriptions, of which I have not yet
had time to make photographs. Lately the Globus published ac-
counts of several of my smaller expeditions, accompanied by some
twenty photographical illustrations which you may perhaps see in the
Globus, Nos. 16 and 18, for 1895.

Some days ago, an earthen vessel, full of little implements of worked
stone, was found at a hacienda near Ticul. I have been promised the
specimens, and will communicate with you in case they turn out to be
of interest. From the cave of Loltun, I have several very good photo-
graphs Lol = Bejuco, the Haytian name for hanging plants (the
name Vana is not used in Mexico) ; tun = stone ; Loltun = stalactites
= hanging stones or stones like hanging plants.

I shall be glad to publish, from time to time, in American scientific
or popular journals, small articles describing my Yucateckan discover-
ies, and when my present work of enlarging photographic negatives is
finished, shall be ready to prepare for you a series of accounts of my
work, accompanied by the necessary celluloid positives from which it
is easy to make reversed negatives for the photolithographic process.

Next year I shall return to the States of Tabasco and Chiapas,
where I have still to explore several entirely unknown ruins hidden in
the wilderness occupied by the Lacandones Indians.

— Theobert Maler.

Ticul, November 20, 1895.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
The Biological Station of the University of Illinois is first to issue
its circular for the summer of 1896. The station staff is composed of
Professor S. A. Forbes, Director; Dr. C. A. Kofoid, Superintendent ;
Frank Smith and Adolph Hempell, Zoological Assistants; Dr. A. W.
Palmer and C. V. Millar, Chemists; C. A. Hart, Entomologist and B.
M. Duggar, Botanist. The station is situated upon the Illinois River
near Havana, 111., and is equipped with every facility for collection
and study. There is a floating laboratory sixty feet long and twenty
wide, a steam launch, licensed to carry 17 persons, and all the necessary
supplies of tables, microscopes, aquaria, nets, chemicals, etc., as well as
a specially selected library. As there are accommodations for only 16
in addition to the station staff, applications for the coming summer will
be received only from those who have had sufficient experience to place
them beyond the need of continuous supervision in their investigations,
and, other things being equal, instructors in biology in colleges and
high schools will receive the preference. The station will be open

The American Naturalist.

[■' ■

during June, July and August. An incidental fee of $5.00 a month
will be charged, and no application for tables should be made for less
than two weeks. Board and rooms can be had in Havana at from
$4.00 to $5.00 a week. All applications should be addressed to the
Director, Professor S. A. Forbes, Urbana, 111.

The announcement is made that Professor Marshall Ward has been
elected to the Chair of Botany in the University of Cambridge, Eng-
land, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death (July 22, 1895) of the
venerable Professor C. C. Babington.

The University of Cambridge receives the botanical collection of the
late Professor Babington.

Mr. F. B. Stead, of Cambridge, England, has been appointed to carry
on the investigations of the fisheries at the Plymouth Laboratory, and
Mr. T. V. Hodgson as Director's Assistant in the same institution.

After an interregnum of several years, Washburn University,
Topeka, Kan., has appointed Dr. G. P. Grimsby, of Columbus, Ohio,
to the Chair of Geology and Natural History.

Drs. Walter B. Rankin and C. F. W. McClure, of Princeton, have
been advanced to Professorships in Biology in the College of New

The Government of the Cape of Good Hope has recently established
a geological commission to carry on a survey of that region.

Dr. R. H. True has been appointed Instructor in Pharmacognostical
Botany in the University of Wisconsin.

ado, is called to the Chair of Geology in

Dr. R. Metzner has been elected Professor of Physiology in the Uni-
versity of Barcelona.

Dr. Dalle-Torre is now Assistant Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Innsbruck.

Dr. Hans Lenk has been appointed Professor of Geology in Er-
langen.

Dr. Ducleaux has been elected President of the Pasteur Institute.

Rare U. S. Reptiles and

Batrachians in Alcohol.

Amphii

Embryological Material.

Mammals, Birds and Fishes, — Skins and Alcoholics.

H. H. & C. S. BRIMLEY

RALEIGH, N. C.

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

V..].. XXX.

ON HEREDITY AND REJUVENATION.

By Charles Sedgwick Minot.

(Continued from page 9.)

III. A Comparison of Larva and Embryo.8

It has long been known that animals develop according to
two types, appearing in their younger stages, either as larvae
or as embryos. The larvse lead a free life and must obtain their
own food. Embryos, on the contrary, do not lead a free life
and are nourished by the yolk accumulated in the parent
ovum. There is, of course, no absolute demarcation between
the two classes ; nevertheless, a general comparison between
them establishes several conclusions which throw valuable
light upon some recent biological hypothesis.

First of all, it must be remarked that the larval develop-
ment is primitive, and that the embryonic development has
been evolved later. Geologists are able to present two princi-
pal supports for this assertion : 1. In the lower animals we
encounter only larvse, never embryos ; sponges, colenterates,
echinoderms and worms, all pass through the early stages of

8 Bead before the Amer. Soc. of Morphologists, December, 1893.

90 The American Naturalist. [February,

their ontogeny as larvae. It would, therefore, be superfluous
to linger for the defense of a view which is already accepted
by all biologists. 2. The embryonic development depends on
the presence of yolk. Now we have learned that the yolk has
developed very gradually and in all the lower animals appears
only in small quantities. It was not until the increase of
yolk material had become enormous, as, for example, in the
meroblastic vertebrates, that we find the development com-
pletely embryonic in type. With the increase of the yolk
comes the gradual transition from larval to embryonic devel-
opment. Since the embryo is dependent on the volk, and
since the yolk exists only in the higher forms insufficient
quantity, it follows that fully typical embryos can occur ex-
clusively in the higher (later developed) animal types.

The fact that larvae represent the primitive forms of de-
velopment, obliges us to conclude that the correctnesss of
Weismann's theory of the continuity of germ plasm can be tested
better in larvse than in embryos, since in embryos the rela-
tions have undergone profound modifications by secondary
changes, which in this connection might easily deceive us.

I do not venture to assert that I know what the present
form of Weismann's continuity theory may be ; I hold, how-
ever, the exact form of this much discussed theory to be non-
essential, because, according to my conviction, the theory can
in no form be brought into agreement with our present knowl-
edge. Nussbaum founded the theory, and opened the way
along which we certainly hope to make great advance. Let
me acknowledge the great value and the strictly scientific
character of Nussbaum's work ; doing this not merely because
I esteem it, but also because the unjust attempt has been made
to diminish his claim. Nussbaum9 thought that the germ
cells are direct decendents of the fertilized ovum, keeping the
germinating power, while the rest of the cells developed from
the egg are transformed into the tissue of the body. He
brought forward several facts which could be interpreted in
favor of his theory. By this theory the whole problem of her-

'■' M. Nussbaum. Zur I.>itl.>r<<n/.i<-nai? ,1,-s ( i.-dilechts im Tirreieh \rch f
Mikrosk. Anatomie, XVIII, 1-121, (1880).

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 91

edity and development was stated in an entirely new form.
Since this publication of Nussbaum's we are seeking for the
explanation of the germinating power, and the propagation of
this power ; formerly we sought for the causes of the inheri-
tance of parental parts. The difference may be illustrated by
the following example. Before Nussbaum we were ruled by
Darwin's conception of Pangenesis, and we investigated ac-
cordingly for the agency by which the eye of the father re-
produced itself in the child. Since Nussbaum we leave Pan-
genesis behind — it belongs henceforth to the past — and try to
determine how the germinal substance behaves, and especially
in what way it is perpetuated from the ovum through the fol-
lowing developmental stages, so that it is finally still present
for the creation of the next generation. It is the conception
of the continuity of the germinal substance which we prize so
highly, and owe to Nussbaum.

Larvae teach us that it cannot be special cells which affect
this continuity. In fact, we find the organs of larval life fully
differentiated before any sexual organs are recognizable, and
indeed, in the majority of known larvae we cannot recognize
even the rudiments of the sexual glands. On the contrary,
we find in larvae unmistakably differentiated locomotive appa-
ratus, such as cilia and often muscle fibres, a digestive canal,
sensory organs, and, in many cases, also special excretory or-
gans, and yet, only in a very few and exceptional cases can
we distinguish the cells which belong to the future sexual
glands. Thus, in regard to the primitive or larval type of de-
velopment, we cannot say that the germ cells are constantly
separated from the somatic cells during the segmentation of
the ovum, but must rather draw precisely the opposite conclu-
sion, namely, that the germ cells belong to the tissues which
arise latest. We often meet many tissues in larvae at a time
when there is still no indication of germ cells. We find the
same relations in embryos also, since in them the principal
tissues become recognizable before germ cells are present.
This fact was well established for vertebrates many years ago.
It is characteristic of Weismann that he long defended the
■continuity of germ cells, in defiance of the facts. He has since

The American Naturalist.

[i.t

given up this wrong view and put in its place his hypothesis
of the continuity of germ plasm. Of Nussbaum's conceptions,
Weismann has left out the fruitful part, and has sown broad-
cast those ideas which were incapable of fruitful development.
He has attempted to defend his notion of the difference be-
tween the elements of the embryo destined for the construction
of the body, on the one hand, and those elements destined for
sexual propagation on the other. Now, since the sexual cells
usually develop from somatic cells, he was forced to assume
that there is a mysterious substance which he names " Keim-
plasma" This substance is supposed to store itself in the
body by some secret way, to separate itself at command from
the histogenic plasm, to appear unchanged and ready to be
the exclusive agent of hereditary transmission.

Nussbaum furnished the conception of the continuity of
germinal substance, which appears to be of immeasurable im-
portance for the scientific investigation of the phenomena of
heredity. But this continuity holds for all cells which arise
from the fertilized ovum, as explained in the first section of
this article. We must, therefore, seek for the causes of the
differentiation of cells, that is to say, for the causes of the pro-
duction of nerve cells, muscle cells, gland cells, etc, and of the
production of germ cells.

I will now try to make clear the significance of the compar-
ison between larv* and embryos for the interpretation of germ
cells. This calls for a short digression.

In the course of my investigations on " Senescence and Re-
juvenation," of which only the first part has been published
(Journal of Physiology, xii, 97), I learned that as cells become
older there occurs an increase of the protoplasm in proportion
to the nucleus, and I further succeeded in proving, as an es-
sential process in reproduction, the formation of cells with
comparatively little protoplasm. Further, it was found prob-
able that a rapid multiplication of cells is only then possible
when the cells have small protoplasmatic bodies (Proc. A. A.
A. S., XXXIX (1890). We, therefore, have learned that the
power of development depends on a special condition of the
cell. By these facts I have been led directly to the following
hypothesis :

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 93

The development of an organism- does not depend on a substance
stored in special cells, but on a special condition (stage) of organi-
zation. As a corollary of this hypothesis may be given this
conclusion : Germ plasm, in Weismann's sense, does not exist.

According to my view, every part inherits from the germ,
and every part of the animal body, as well as its germ cells,
possesses the multiplying morphogenetic force, the action of
which, however, is inhibited to the condition of the parts
themselves. What this condition may be is not yet exactly
known, but this much we do know, that the morphogenetic force
is found in full activity in cells with little protoplasm. It is in-
deed highly probable that the slight development of proto-
plasm in proportion to the nucleus is an unavoidable condi-
tion of morphogenesis, or in other words, of the action of her-
edity. In fact we see that the first processes of development
— as I have elsewhere explained (Proc. A. A. A. S., XIX) —
show in the most varied cases a remarkable uniformity, for
they always accomplish the production of cells with little pro-
toplasm. Compare, in this respect, the vegetation points of
plants, the root buds of slips, the budding zones of Annelids,
the germinal layers of vertebrates, etc. The condition which
allows the morphogenetic or hereditary force to act, arises
under differing conditions, of which the fertilization of the

Weismann tries to make comprehensible to us this one case,
that of the fertilized ovum, by a special explanation which is
available for no other case. Oscar Hertwig has recently (Zeit
und Streitfragen, Heft I) clearly shown that Weismann's ex-
planation is a speculative assumption, which can only, be
saved from rejection by numerous and often selfcontradictory
additional assumptions. As I fully agree with Hertwig's crit-
icism, I need only refer to his essay.

We will return to our proper theme. The next point is to
determine whether there is a difference in the condition of
the cells, as, regards their capacity for development, between
larvte, on the one hand, and embryos on the other. It can be
proved that this is the case, by the following considerations.
So far as we vet know, it is chiefly two factors which inhibit

The American Naturalist.

[February,

development : first, the increase of protoplasm ; second, the
progress of organization, i. e., of differentiation.

As I was about to close this article, I received through the
kindness of the author, Nussbaum's address on differation, in
which he has defended essentially the same views as those
which I hold. Such an agreement is of great value to me.

Now we know that larvte are animal forms which have to
obtain their own food and to protect themselves against ene-
mies, and therefore are provided with differentiated tissues.
Embryos, on the contrary, take their nutriment simply from
the ovum, and the cells continue for a long time, developing
and multiplying, while the protoplasm of the single cells in-
creases very slightly, and the beginning of the differentiation
proper is correspondingly postponed. I believe that we here
have to deal with causal relations. From the actual relations
just described, I conclude that the most essential difference
hitherto known between larvse and embryos, is to be found in
the differing lengths of the period of multiplication of undif-
ferentiated cells. In consequence of the shorter duration of
the period in larva* they have a much smaller total num-
ber of undifferentiated cells than embryos, or reversely ex-
pressed, embryos are much better equipped with material for
the construction of the adult body, than are larva-. As al-
ready stated, embryos are produced by the higher animals.
This fact finds its explanation in the relations just described
because the increased number of undifferentiated, or so called
embryonic cells, is precisely the necessary preliminary condi-
tion of the greater complexity of the differentiation by which
the animal becomes more highly organized.

For the sake of clearness I have put aside all complications
which might come in to play. It goes without saying, that
the relations, in many respects, are by no means simple, nev-
ertheless, the main conclusion above given seems a secure
gain.

I therefore interpret the embryo as a device to render possi-
ble the increase of undifferentiated cells, and consequently a
higher ultimate organization. The origin of this device is
conditioned by a supply of food independent of the embryo.

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 95

From our present standpoint it is a matter of indifference
whether the independent food supply comes from the yolk or
from the uterus, however important the difference maybe
from other points of view.

It is to be further noted that our interpretation of the sig-
nificance of the embryo is also opposed to Weismann's theory
of germ plasm, because it emphasizes the importance of the
condition as opposed to the assumption of a germinal substance
or plasm. This road also leads to the conclusion reached
above by other ways, the conclusion, namely: Reproduction
involves rejuvenation, and rejuvenation is characterized by
the production of cells with little, and that little not differen-
tiated, protoplasm. Since rejuvenated cells arise by asexual
as well as by sexual reproduction, since they appear in much
greater numbers in embryos than in larvae, and since they
may be interpolated, as in the pupae of butterflies, in the
midst of the development of an individual, we must admit
that the hereditary impulse (vcrerbende Kraft) is distributed in
very different cells and is probably distributed equally through
all cells. Hertwig has reached the same conclusion, with
which Weismann's theory of germ plasm cannot be made to
agree.

As Weismann has neglected the problem of rejuvenation,
he has necessarily often gone astray in his discussion of phe-
nomena in which rejuvenation plays the principal role. One
is astonished at the slight attention bestowed on rejuvenation,
when one recalls that it is the central problem of all questions
of heredity treated by him.

Rejuvenation is one of the principal phenomena of life, and
the rejuvenated condition of the cell is probably an unavoida-
ble preliminary of heredity. We know that at least one ana-
tomical sign of the rejuvenated condition is to be found in the
preponderance of the nucleus in proportion to the protoplasm :
a second anatomical sign is found in the structure of the pro-
toplasm, which, in young cells always remains without differ-
erentiation. The chief physiological sign of rejuvenation in
cells which we as yet know is the power of rapid multiplica-
tion. Thus, we see, in case of sexual rejuvenation, that the

96 The American Naturalist [February,

development of the fertilized ovum begins with an excessive
proliferation of the nuclei, by which numerous cells are cre-
ated, each with little protoplasm. Histogenetic differentiation
begins later. The asexual rejuvenation has a similar course,
but needs more thorough investigation.

Now differentiation is the sign of inheritance, and this mor-
phological inheritance cannot develop itself fully until the
senescence of the cells becomes recognizable by the growth of
their protoplasm. On the other hand, we see complete inher-
itance develop itself, after preceeding rejuvenation. Accord-
ingly we gain two conceptions : first, the hereditary impulse
belongs to the inherent and constant properties of cells in gen-
eral ; second, the activity of their impulse may be inhibited by
the condition of the cells. My view may be expressed in the
following way : Somatic cells are simply cells in which the
activity of the hereditary impulse is inhibited in consequence
of their senescence, or, in other words, differentiation ; but
under suitable conditions the somatic cells may pass over into
the rejuvenated stage, and thereupon develop the most com-
plete hereditary possibilities.

The importance of rejuvenation must also be recognized
when we consider the phylogenetic origin of single organs.
Let us take a simple example. We may safely assume that
the ancestors of mammals possessed a smooth skin, and that
the covering of hairs is a new acquisition. Each hair is the
product of a local growth. If we investigate the germ of a
hair, we find that it consists of rejuvenated cells, that is to say,
of cells with little protoplasm, or, as we are accustomed to say,
of the embryonic type. Thus the formation of hairs depends
on numerous centers of rejuvenation. In the multiplication
of striped muscle fibres we find the agents to be the muscle
buds, which are small, protoplasmatic structures, with rela-
tively numerous nuclei. If we observe a developing gland,
let us say a pancreas or a sweat gland, we find the rudiment
to consist of rejuvenated cells; the cells multiply rapidly, and
after the organ has its essential form, the histogenetic differenti-
ation begins. It would be easy to multiply such examples a
thousandfold.

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 97

The consideration of the role of rejuvenation in the origin
of organs leads us to the theory of Post-selection (Nach-
auslese). The theory is by no means new, but I wish to em-
phasize its far reaching importance. The preceding discus-
sion teaches us to divide the origin of a new morphological
part into two stages. The first stage is the development of
the rudiment (milage) by multiplication of the cells. The
second stage is characterized by the gradual differentiation of
the cells, by which they become capable of their ultimate
functions. Especially in embryos is the difference in time
very marked between the formation and the differentiation of
the " Anlagt." Now it is evident that the undifferentiated
*' Anlage " is not useful, but becomes useful later. The forma-
tion and conservation of the " Anlage," therefore, are due to se-
lection, working, not directly upon the " Anlage,'' but indi-
rectly through preservation of the fully developed organ- The
conception advanced is very simple and appears to me a nec-
essary consequence of our knowledge- For the conception
itself there has been hitherto to no definite term, I propose,
therefore, to call it " Post-selection " (in German, " Kachaus-
lese). To avoid possible misunderstanding, I give another ex-
ample of post-selection. A parasitic wasp lays its egg in a
certain caterpillar; the mother wasp gains no advantage, nat-
ural selection does not touch her, but only her progeny, the
wasp larva. Nevertheless, the survival of the fittest rules.

In conclusion, I should like to direct the reader's attention
to a problem which, so far as I am acquainted with the litera-
ture of biology, has been left almost unconsidered. This pres-
ent translation enables me to insert a qualification of the pre-
ceding sentence, which ought to have been inserted in the
original article, namely, that the problem has been the sub-
ject of important discussions by Hyatt, Cope and a very few
others among paleontologists. I am glad to be able to refer
to the article by Professor Hyatt, (see Jan. Naturalist) and pre-
sents the paleontological theory of the loss of ancestral charac-
teristics. The problem above referred to is the problem of lost
characteristics, which seems to me o«e of the fundamental
problems of the doctrine of evolution, because we cannot un-

98 The American Naturalist. [February,

derstand the development of the higher organisms until this
problem is solved. Everybody is writing about the origin of
new organs, and we take lively pleasure in discussions about
acquired characteristics. But if we consider the circumstances
closely, we recognize that the loss of ancestral characteristics
almost equals in importance the acquisition of new character-
istics for the formation of new species. We assume that man
had fish like ancestors, and we strengthen ourselves in this be-
lief by the comparison so often made between the human em-
bryo, on the one side, and the adult fish on the other. But if
the comparison be impartial we are forced to admit that
nearly everything which is most characteristic of the fish is
conspicuously lacking in the human embryo. Taking the
embryo at the stage when the gill clefts have their maximum
development, we find the following relations : the body is not
straight but coiled up, and this coiling up is indispensable, in
order to bring about the proper distribution of the human
nerves, blood vessels, and so forth ; the gill clefts are closed ;
gills are wanting ; the digestive canal has no glands ; the epi-
dermis has no scales; the chorda dorsalis does not form a
large axis of the body, but is a minute string of cells. In
short, the Biogenetisches Grundgesetz (Recapitulation theory or
von Baer's law, according to Adam Sedgwick) is scarcely half
true. I have previously defended this conclusion at a meet-
ing of the American Society of Morphologists, in December,
1893, Subsequently, but independently, Adam Sedgwick has
reached a similar conclusion, see his paper " On the Law of
Development, etc:' (Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., XXXVI, 35).
Were it not, as above implied, that the departures from the
fish type are in great excess, there would be no embryo at all,
and consequently no man, for the adult form is a conse-
quence of the embryonic. The embryo is the mechanical
cause of the adult body. How has the disappearance of the
ancestral fish characteristics been effected ? The question re-
mains unanswered. It will, perhaps, be replied " through dis-
use " or "through panmixia." But "disuse" is merely a
name, not an explanation of the phenomena. Panmixia is an
hypothesis erected on nothing. In fact, this hypothesis as-

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 99

sumes that the majority of variations fall below the value
maintained by natural selection, and consequently that when
the influence of natural selection is eliminated (as in disuse),
the mere variation will bring the traits concerned to disap-
pearance. It marks Weismann's style of thought to find that
he has entirely omitted to determine whether his assumption
was correct, and nevertheless in his book, " The Germ Plasm,"
presents panmixia as an established law. As a matter of fact,
the statistics of variations which we already have, show that
his assumption is erroneous, and that it is equally probable
that mere variation will magnify a characteristic as it is that
it will diminish it.

Let us return to the embryo. The following hypothesis
may be advanced :

The loss of ancestral clwreiet< ristics in the embryo is due to post-
selection, the cells being kept in a rejuvenated stage, in order that
they may after n-<wh xeromplish new differentiations.

This conclusion follows directly from the preceding consid-
erations, and, therefore, needs no further defense.

IV. Concluding Remarks.

The views presented in the preceeding sections are inti-
mately connected one with another and collectively determine
our conception of the process of heredity. The conception
concerns only the process and not the essential character or
cause of heredity. According to my view, heredity exists in
all cells, but a of the liv-

ing substance, and can be complete only in embryonic cells ;
embryonic cells arise under very various conditions. That
which is novel in this theory is the significance attributed to
embryonic cells. Embryonic cells I prefer to designate as re-
juvenated cells.

The theory above presented is an unavoidable consequence
of the facts known, and stands in absolute contradiction with
Weismann's theory of the germ plasm.

I have read with the greatest conscientiousness every article
hitherto published by Weismann, which deals with his theo-
ries of heredity. My final impression from this study is that

100 The American Naturalist. [February,

the " Theory of Germ Plasm " corresponds to the personal in-
clinations of its author and is in no sense a logical deduction
won by the collation of facts. The assumption of a difference
between germ plasm and histogenic plasm explains nothing.
Even according to Weismann's own exposition it explains
nothing, for the supposed phenomena which the assumption is
said to explain, according to Weismann, do not exist. Ac-
cording to him, the circumstances are the following : The phe-
nomena due to the germ plasm do not occur in somatic cells,
therefore they have a different plasm, namely, histogenic;
further, these phenomena do occur in somatic cells, there-
fore, they have germ plasm. Attention must be directed
also, and explicitly, to the fact that Weismann offers no obser-
vations to support his fundamental assumption. His theory is
mystical to an extreme degree. In Weismann's book, " The
Germ plasm," one finds one hypothesis after another in order
to support his tottering first hypothesis— germ plasm and his-
togenic plasm are special and separate substances. I demand
of Weismann that he lay aside all his hypotheses, and present to
us solely the facts, which support his theory of germ plasm.
Then he will learn, as other investigators have already
learned, that his hypothesis has been built up without suffi-
cient foundation.

Let an investigator enquire for a possibility of testing the
existence of the " Ids," " Biophors," " Determinants," etc., as-
serted by Weismann, and he will discover that the whole
fabric is woven by speculative imagination. Confirmation of
his ideas has, strictly speaking, not been attempted by Weis-
mann. Indeed, confirmation is altogether impossible, for his
conceptions are far beyond the limits of present human means
of investigation.

It is time to finally discard a theory which leads astray and
which, although it arose without scientific justification, is
again and again pushed to the front by its promulgator. It
is a scientific duty to take an unhesitating stand against
Weismann's theory, for only so can it become known that
those who have specially occupied themselves with the
problem of heredity reject Weismann's theory of germ plasm
unconditionally.

The Formulation of the Natural Sfiennt.

The Theory of Panplasm.

It appears desirable that the modern theory of heredity
should be designated by a brief and appropriate name, and
accordingly I propose the term " Panplasm," and that the the-
ory be called " The Theory of Panplasm." By panplasm will
be understood the physical basis of hereditary transmission,
which is supposed to be distributed through all cells, and
which accounts for the phenomena of sexual reproduction, re-
generation and asexual reproduction. Panplasm is not a col-
lection of gemmules or biophors. The term " panplasm " was
first used by me at a meeting of the Society of Arts, in Boston,
November 14, 1895.

On another occasion I hope to discuss the theories of pan-
genesis and panplasm in their historical aspects.

THE FORMULATION OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES.1

By E. D. Cope.

Formulation is the method of presentation of the forms of
our thoughts. Our observations of the facts of material nature
are embodied in such classifications as we think best express
their relations, and by means of these classification^ expressed
in language, we convey to others our conclusions in the pre-
mises. As the vehicle of presentation, formulation is one of
the aspects of language, which as the medium of communica-
tion between men, enables them to accumulate knowledge.
It is highly important then that the system of formulation
should be uniform, so as to convey definite meaning and pre-
serve the truth. The vast number of facts to be marshaled in
orderly array, which constitute the natural sciences, require a

Philadelphia, Dec. 2«3th, 1895.

102 The American Naturalist. [February,

-correspondingly complex and exact formulation. The advent
of the doctrine of evolution into the organic sciences involves
the necessity of making such readjustments of our method of
formulation as may be called for. It is with reference to this
condition and the present action of naturalists regarding it,
that I address you to-day. The subject may be considered
under the three heads of Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Nomen-
clature.

I. Taxonomy.

Taxonomy or classification is an orderly record of the struc-
tural characters of organic beings. The order observed is an
order of values of these characters. Thus we have what we call
specific or species value, generic value, family value, and so on.
These values are not imaginary or artificial, as some would
have us believe, but they are found in nature. Their recogni-
tion by the naturalist is a matter of experience, and the ex-
pression of them is a question of tact. Their recognition rests
on a knowledge of morphology, or the knowledge of true iden-
tities and differences of the parts of which organic beings are
composed. The formulation of these values in classification
foreshadows the evolutionary explanation of their origin, and
is always the first step necessary to the discovery of a phylo-
geny.

Taxonomy, then, is, and always has been, an arranging of
organic beings in the order of their evolution. This accounts
for the independence of the values of taxonomic characters, of
any other test. Thus, no character can be alleged to be of
high value because it has a physiological value, or because it
has no physiological value. A physiological character may
or may not have a taxonomic value. The practiced taxo-
nomist finds a different test of values, which is this. He first
endeavors to discover the series of organic forms which he
studies. He learns the difference between its beginning and
its ending. His natural divisions are the steps or stages which
separate the one extremity from the other. The series may
be greater or they may be lesser, i. e., more or less comprehen-
sive, and it is to the series of different grades that we give the
different names of the genus, family, order, etc.

1396.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 103

We know that the characters of specific value in given cases
-are usually more numerous than those of higher groups. We
know that they are matters of proportions, dimensions, tex-
tures, patterns, colors, etc., which are many. The characters
of the higher groups, on the contrary, are what we call struc-
tural, i. e., the presence, absence, separation or fusion of ele-
mental parts, as estimated by a common morphologic stand-
ard ; and it is the business of the morphologist to determine
each case on this basis. ■ In these characters lies the key to the
larger evolution, that of the higher aggregations of living
things. On the contrary, the study of the origin of spe-
cies characters gives us the evolution of species within the
genus, but of nothing more, except by inference.

Classification, then, is a record of characters, arranged ac-
cording to their values. There still lingers, in some quarters,
a different opinion. This holds that there is such a thing as
a " natural system," as contrasted with "an anatomical sys-
tem." Examination shows that the supporters of this view
suppose that there is some bond of affinity between certain
living beings which is not expressed in anatomical characters.
A general resemblance apparent to the eye is valued by them
more highly than a structural character. If this " general ap-
pearance " is analyzed, however, it is found to be simply an
aggregate of characters usually of the species type, which by
no means precludes the presence of anatomical differences.
And these anatomical differences may indicate little relation-
ship, in spite of the general resemblance of the species con-
cerned, or they may have only the smallest value attached
to such characters, i. e., the generic. It is with regard to the
generic characters that the chief difference of practice
exists. But it is clear that the record of this grade of
characters cannot be modified by questions of specific
characters. The two questions are distinct. Both rep-
resent nature, and must be formulated. In fact, I have
long since pointed out that the same species, so far as species
characters go, may have different generic characters in differ-
ent regions. Also that allied species of different genera may
have more specific characters in common than remote species
of the same genus.

104 The American Naturalist. [February,

The anticipation naturally intrudes itself that the charac-
ters which distinguish the steps in a single evolutionary or
genealogical line must disappear with discovery, and new ones
appearand that they must be all variable at certain geological
periods, and hence must become valueless as taxonomic criteria.
And it is therefore concluded that our systematic edifice must
lose precision and becomes a shadow rather than a reality. I
think that as a matter of fact this will not be the result, and for
the following reasons. In the first place, when, say all the gen-
eric forms of a genealogical line, shall have been discovered,
we will find that each one of them will differ from its neigh-
bor in one character only. This naturally follows from the
fact that two characters rarely, if ever, appear and disappear
contemporaneously. Hence, generic characters will not be
drawn up so as to include several points. For a while, there
will be found to be combinations of two or three characters
which will serve as definitions, but discovery will relegate
them to a genus each. Each of these characters will be found
to have what I have called the " expression point," or the
moment of completeness, before which it cannot be said to ex-
ist. In illustration I cite the case of the eruption of a tooth.
Before it passes the line of the alveolus it is not in use ; it is
not in place as an adult organism. When it passes that line
it has become mature, has reached its expression point, comes
into functional use, and may be counted as a character. Such
will be found to be the case with all separate parts ; there al-
ways will be a time when they are not completed, and then
there will be a time when they are. These lines, then, will
always remain as our boundaries, as they are now, for all nat-
ural divisions from the generic upwards. This condition can-
not exist in characters of proportionate dimensions, which
which will necessarily exhibit complete transitions in evolu-
tion. Hence, proportions alone can only be used ultimately
as specific characters.

Some systematists desire to regard phyletic series as the only
natural divisions. This may be the ultimate outcome of pale-
ontologic discovery, but at present such a practice seems to me
to be premature. In the first place, as all natural divisions

1896.] The Formulation <>f the Xa turn I Sciences. 105

rest on characters, we must continue to depend on their indi-
cations, no matter whether the result gives us phyletic series
or not. In the next place, we must remember that we have in
every country interruptions in the sequence of the geological
formations, which will give us structural breaks until they are
filled. There are also periods when organic remains were not
preserved ; these also will give us interruptions in our series.
So we shall have to adhere to our customary method without
regard to theory, and if the phyletic idea is correct, as I believe
it to be, it will appear in the final result, and at some future

Authors are frequently careless in their definitions. Aery
often they include, in the definition of the order, characters
which belong in that of the family, and in that of the family
those that belong in the genus. Characters of different values
are thus mixed. The tendency, especially with naturalists
who have only studied limited groups, is to overestimate the
importance of characters. Thus the tendency is to propose
too many genera and other divisions of the higher grades. In
some groups structure has been lost sight of altogether, and
color patterns, dimensions, and even geographical range,
treated as characters of genera. As the mass of knowledge in-
creases, however, the necessity for precision will become so
pressing that this kind of formulation will be discarded, and
definitions which mean something will be employed. Search
will be made especially for that one character which the nature
of the series renders it probable will survive, as discoveries of in-
termediate forms are successively made, and here the tact and
precision of the taxonomist has the opportunity for exercise.
In the selection of these characters, one problem will occasion-
ally present itself. The sexes of the same species sometimes
display great disparity of developmental status, sometimes the
male, but more frequently the female, remaining in a rela-
tively immature stage, or in others presenting an extraordi-
nary degeneracy. In these cases the sex that displays what
one might call the genius, or in other words, the tendency,
of the entire group, will furnish the definitions. This will
generally be that one which displays the most numerous char-

106 The American Naturalist. [February,

acters. In both the cases mentioned the male will furnish
these rather than the female ; but in a few cases the female
furnishes them. The fact that both sexes do not present them
does not invalidate them, any more than the possession of dis-
tinct reproductive systems would refer the sexes to different
natural divisions.

I have seen characters objected to as of little value because
they were absent or inconstant in the young. I only mention
the objection to show how superficially the subject of taxo-
nomy may be treated. So that a character is constant in the
adult, the time of its appearance in development is immaterial
in a taxonomic sense, though it may have important phylo-
genetic significance.

II. Phylogeny.

The formulation of a phylogeny or genealogy involves, as a
preliminary, a clear taxonomy. I refer to hypothetical phylo-
genies, such as those which we can at present construct are in
large part. A perfect phylogeny would be a clear tax-
onomy in itself, so far as it should go, did we possess one ;
and such we may hope to have ere long, as a result of paleonto-
logical research. But so long as we can only supply parts of our
phyletic trees from actual knowledge, we must depend on a
clear analysis of structure as set forth in a satisfactory taxo-
nomy, such as I have defined above.

Confusion in taxonomy necessarily introduces confusion
into phylogeny. Confusion of ideas is even more apparent
in the work of phylogenists than in that of the taxonomists,
because a new but allied element enters into the formulation.
It is in the highest degree important for the phylogenist,
whether he be constructing a genealogic tree himself or en-
deavoring to read that constructed by some one else, to be
clear as to just what it is of which he is tracing the descent.
Is he tracing the descent of species from each other, or of gen-
era from each other, or of orders from each other, or what ?
When I trace the phylogeny of the horse, unless I specify, it
cannot be known whether I am tracing that of the species
Equus caballus, or that of the genus Equus, or that of

1S96.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 107

the family Equidse. When one is tracing the phytogeny
of species, he is tracing the descent of the numerous char-
acters which define a species. This is a complex prob-
lem, and but little progress has been made in it from the
paleontologic point of view. Something has been done with
regard to the descent of some living species from each other.
But when we are considering the descent of a genus, we re-
strict ourselves to a much more simple problem, i. e., the de-
scent of the few simple characters that distinguish the genus
from other genera. Hence, we have made much more pro-
gress in this kind of phylogeny than with that of species, espe-
cially from the paleontologic point of view. The problem is
simplified as we rise to still higher divisions, i. e., to the in-
vestigation of the origin of the characters which define them.
We can positively affirm many things now as to the origin of
particular families and orders, especially among the Mam-
malia, where the field has been better explored than else-
It is in this field that the unaccustomed hand is often seen.
Supposing some phyletic tree alleges that such and such has
been the line of descent of such and such orders or families, as
the case may be ; soon a critic appears who says that this or
that point is clearly incorrect, and gives his reasons. These
reasons are that there is some want of correspondence of gen-
eric characters between the genera of the say two families al-
leged to be phyletically related. And this want of corre-
spondence is supposed to invalidate the allegation of phyletic
relation between the families. But here is a case of irrele-
vancy ; a generic character cannot be introduced in a compar-
ison of family characters. In the case selected, the condition
is to be explained by the fact that although the families are
phyletically related, one or both of the two juxtaposed genera
through which the transition was accomplished has or have
not been discovered. The same objection may be made
against an allegation of descent of some genus from another,
because the phyletic relation between the known species of the
two genera cannot be demonstrated. I cite as an example the
two genera, Hippotherium and Equus, of which the latter has

108 T7ie American Naturalist. [February,

been asserted with good reason to have descended from the
former. It has been shown, however, that the Equus caballus
could not have descended from the European Hippotheriwm
tnediterraneuni, and hence some writers have jumped to the
conclusion that the alleged phyletic relation of the two genera
does not exist, The reasons for denying this descent are,
however, presented by specific characters only, and the generic
characters are in no way affected. Further, we know several
species of Hippotherium which could have given origin to the
Equus caballus probably through intermediate species of
Equus.

Some naturalists are very uncritical in criticising phylo-
genies in the manner I have just described. They often ne-
glect to ascertain the definitions given by an author to a
group alleged by him to be ancestral ; but fitting to it some
definition of their own, proceed to state that the ancestral posi-
tion assigned to it cannot be correct, and to propose some new
division to take its place. It is necessary to examine, in such
cases, whether the new group so proposed is not really in-
cluded in the definition of the old one which is discarded.

The fact that existing genera, families, etc., are contem-
porary need not invalidate their phyletic relation. Group
No. 1 must have been contemporary with group No. 2, at the
time that it gave origin to the latter, and frequently, though
always, a certain number of representatives of group No. 1
have not changed, but have persisted to later periods. Some
genera, as, e. g., Crocodilus, have given origin to other genera
(i. e., Diplocynodon) and have outlasted it, for the latter genus
is now extinct. The lung fishes, Ceratodus, are probably an-
cestral to the Lepidosirens, but both exist to-day. Series of
genera, clearly phyletic, of Batrachia Salientia, are contem-
poraries. Of course we expect that the paleontologic record
will show that their appearance in time has been successive.
But many ancestors are living at the same modern period as
their descendents, though not always in the same geographic

18%.] The FortnubUum 9/ the Natural Sciences. 109

III. Nomenclature.

Nomenclature is like pens, ink and paper; it is not science,
but it is essential to the pursuit of science. It is, of course, for
convenience that we use it but it does not follow from that
that every kind of use of it is convenient. It is a rather com-
mon form of apology for misuse of it to state that as it is a
matter of convenience, if makes no difference how many or
how few names we recognize or use. An illustration of this
bad method is the practice of subdividing a genus of many
species into many genera, simply because it has many species.
The author who does this ignores the fact that a genus has a
definite value, no matter whether it has one or five hundred
species. I do not mean to maintain that the genus or any
other value has an absolute fixity in all cases. They un-
doubtedly grade into each other at particular places in the
system, but these cases must be judged on their own merits.
In general there is no such gradation.

Nomenclature is then orderly because the things named
have definite relations which it is the business of taxonomy,
and nomenclature its spokesman, to state. Here we have a
fixed basis of procedure. In order to reach entire fixity, a rule
which decides between rival names for the same thing is in
force. This is the natural and rational law of priority. With the
exception of some conservative botanists, all naturalists are, so
for as I am aware, in the habit of observing this rule. The
result of a failure to do so is self evident. There is, however,
some difference of opinion as to what constitutes priority.
Some of the aspects of the problem are simple, others more
difficult. Thus there is little or no difference of opinion as to
the rule that the name of a species is the first binomial which
it received. This is not a single date for all species, since
some early authors who used trinomials and polynomials
occasionally used binomials. A second rule which is found
in all the codes, is that a name in order to be a candidate for
adoption, must be accompanied by a descriptive diagnosis or
a plate. As divisions above species cannot be defined by a
plate, a description is essential in every such case.

110 The American Naturalist. [February,

It is on the question of description that a certain amount of
difference of opinion exists. From the codes of the Associa-
tions for the Advancement of Science, and of the Zoological
Congresses, no difference of opinion can be inferred, hut the
practice of a number of naturalists both zoologists and paleon-
tologists in America, and paleontologists in Europe, is not in
accord with the rule requiring definition of all groups above
species. It has always appeared to me remarkable that a rule
of such self evident necessity should not meet with universal
adoption. However, the objections to it, such as they are, I
will briefly consider. It is alleged that the definitions when first
given are more or less imperfect, and have to be subsequently
amended, hence it is argued they have no authority. How-
ever, the first definitions, if drawn up with reference to the
principles enumerated in the first part of this address, need
not be imperfect. Also an old time diagnosis of a division
which we have subsequently found it necessary to divide, is
not imperfect on that account alone, but it may be and often
is, the definition of a higher group. But you are familiar
with all this class of objections, and the answers to them, so I
will refer only to the positive reasons which have induced the
majority of naturalists to adhere to the rule.

It is self evident that so soon as we abandon definitions for
words, we have left science and have gone into a kind of liter-
ature. In pursuing such a course we load ourselves with rub-
bish, and place ourselves in a position to have more of it
placed upon us. The load of necessary names is quite suffi-
cient, and we must have a reason for every one of them, in
order to feel that it is necessary to carry it. Next, it is essen-
tial that every line of scientific writing should be intelligible.
A man should be required to give a sufficient reason for every-
thing that he does in science. Thus much on behalf of clear-
ness and precision. There is another aspect of the case which
is ethical. I am aware that some students do not think that
ethical considerations should enter into scientific work. To
this I answer that I do not know of any field of human labor
into which ethical considerations do not necessarily enter.
The reasons for sustaining the law of priority are partly

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. Ill

ethical, for we instinctively wish to see every man credited
with his own work, and not some other man. The law of prior-
ity in nomenclature goes no further in this direction than the
nature of each case requires. Nomenclature may be an index of
much meritorious work, or it may represent comparatively lit-
tle work ; but it is to the interest of all of us that it be not
used to sustain a false pretence of work that has not been done
at all. By insisting on this essential test of honest intentions
we retain the taxonomic and phylogenetic work within the
circle of a class of men who are competent to it, and cease
to hold out rewards to picture makers and cataloguers.

Another contention of some of the nomenclators who use
systematic names proposed without description, is, that the
spelling in which they were first printed must not be cor-
rected if they contain orthographical and typographical er-
rors. That this view should be sustained by men who have
not had the advantage of a classical education, might not be
surprising, although one would think they would prefer to
avoid publicly displaying the fact, and would be willing to
travel some distance in order to find some person who could
help them in the matter of spelling. But when well educated
men support such a doctrine, one feels that they have created out
of the law of priority a fetish which they worship with a devotion
quite too narrow. The form of our nomenclature being Latin,
the rules of Latin orthography and grammar are as incumbent
on us to observe, as are the corresponding rules of English
grammar in our ordinary speech. This cult so far as I know,
exists only in the United States and among certain members
of the American Ornithologists Union. The preservation of
names which their authors never defined ; of names which
their proposers misspelled ; of names from the Greek in Greek
instead of Latin form ; of English hyphens in Latin com-
position ; and of hybrid combinations of Greek and Latin,
are objects hardly worth contending for. Some few authors
are quite independent of rules in the use of gender termina-
tions, but I notice the A. O. U. requires these to be printed
correctly. Apart from this I notice in the second edition of
their check list of North American Birds just issued, only

112 The American Natu

;>■>,:„.

eighteen misspellings out of a total number of 76S specific
and subspecific names, and the generic and other names
accompanying. These are of course not due to ignorance on
the part of the members of this body, some of whom are
distinguished for scholarship, but because of an extreme view
of the law of priority.

In closing I wish to utter a plea for euphony and brevity in
the construction of names. In some quarters the making of
such names is an unknown art. The simple and appropriate
names of Linneus and Cuvier can be still duplicated if stu-
dents would look into the matter. A great number of such
names can be devised by the use of significant Greek prefixes
attached to substantiates which may or may not have been
often used. Personal names in Greek have much significance,
and they are generally short and euphonious. The unap-
propriated wealth in this direction is so great that there is
really no necessity for poverty in this direction. It should be
rarely necessary, for instance, to construct generic names by
adding prefixes and suffixes of no meaning to a standard gen-
eric name- already in use.

SOME LOCALITIES FOR LARAMIE MAMMALS AND
HORNED DINOSAURS.

By J. B. Hatcher.

It is the purpose of tlii.s |»aper tu giv*> brief hut accurate de-
scriptions of the localities for the most important and best
preserved specimens of Laramie mammals and horned and
other dinosaurs collected by the writer for the U. S. Geological
Survey, and now carefully stored in the Yale Museum at New
Haven ; with a map of the most important locality at present
known and suggestions to collectors visiting this, or other local-
ities as to the most promising places and best methods to be
employed in order to attain the greatest degree of success.

1896.] Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 113

History of the Discorert/ of L<imm.i<: Homed Dinosaurs.

As early as 1872, Professor Cope1 described under the name
of Agathaumas sylvestre a portion of the skeleton of a horned
dinosaur from Laramie beds near Black Butte in southwestern
Wyoming. In various publications from 1874-1877 which
appeared in The American Naturalist, Proceedings Phila-
delphia Academy Sciences and Bulletins of the U. S. Geologi-
cal Survey, Cope has added much to our knowledge of these
strange forms, chiefly from material collected by himself and
Mr. Charles H. Sternberg from the vicinity of Cow Island on
the upper Missouri River in Montana.

In 1887 a new locality for horned dinosaurs was found near
Denver, Colorado, by Mr. George L. Cannon. The most im-
portant specimen, consisting of a pair of horn cores, was sent
to Professor Marsh for identification and description. They
were not characteristic, and owing to their striking resem-
blance to the horns of certain fossil Bisons, they were referred
by Marsh to that genus and described under the name of Bison
alticornis ; the beds in which they were found being referred
to late Pliocene and denominated the Bison beds?

In 188S the writer secured in the same locality in which
Cope had operated in 1875 and 1876 on the upper Missouri,
parts of several skulls of a horned dinosaur, some of which
Marsh has described, creating for them a new genus Cfrntops.
and several new species. A comparison of the types of Cope's
Momn;loi tin* reciircicnmis and Marsh's (Vmtop* mo ntamis, both
from the same locality in Montana. would doubtless establish
the generic identity of the two.

Not until 1889 was a locality found where remains of these
animals were sufficiently abundant and well preserved to afford
material which would give us an adequate idea of their struct-
ure and habits. In the fall of 1888 the writer's attention was
called to a pair of homcores belonging to Mr. C. A. Guernsey,
of Douglas, Wyoming. Upon inquiry it was learned that they
had been taken from a huge skull found by Mr. E. B. Wilson

114 Ihe American Naturalist. [February,

on Buck Creek, some of 35 miles north of Lusk, Wyoming.
Early in the spring of 1889 the writer proceeded to Lusk, near
which place Mr. Wilson still lived, and easily succeeded in
getting that most accomodating gentleman to show him the
skull from which he had taken the horns. This has proved a
most important locality, and material obtained from it has in-
creased many fold our knowledge of the Laramie reptilian and
mammalian faunas. In the nearly four years spent by the
writer in working these beds, 31 skulls and several fairly com-
plete skeletons of horned dinosaurs were secured, besides two
quite complete skeletons of hirlnni,ia (( lon.vnrnis), about 5000
isolated jaws and teeth of Laramie mammals and numerous
remains of other dinosaurs, turtles, lizards, birds and fishes,
as well as extensive collections of freshwater invertebrates from
the same beds. In all over 300 large boxes of fossils were
collected for the U. S. Geological Survey, and are now carefully
stored in the Yale Museum, many of them as yet unopened.

At present remains of horned dinosaurs are known from only
four widely separated localities; one of these, that of Black Butte,
Wyoming, is west of the main range of the Rocky Mountains,
and the other three including the Denver locality in Colorado ;
the Converse Co. locality in the extreme eastern portion of
central Wyoming, and the Judith River or Cow Island locality
in northern Montana, lie east of the main range. There are
other localities known to the writer, but they are as yet of
minor importance, since little collecting has been done in them
and no material has been described from them. They will be
referred to later.

The Ceratops Beds.

In the American Journal of Science for December, 1889,
Professor Marsh applied the name Ceratops beds to certain strata
in the west from which horned dinosaurs had been secured.
He did not then, nor has he at any time since, designated just
what he considered the geographical distribution of these beds
nor their upper and lower delimitations in the geological scale.
In order that the reader may not be misled in regard to Pro-
fessor Marsh's position on this question I will quote him some-

1896.] Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 115

what fully. In speaking of the horned dinosaurs in the pub-
lication just cited he says: " The geological deposits, also, in
which their remains are found have been carefully explored
during the past season, and the known localities of importance
examined by the writer, to ascertain what other fossils occur
in them, and what were the special conditions which preserved
so many relics of this unique fauna.

" The geological horizon of these strange reptiles is a distinct
one in the upper Cretaceous, and ha$ now been (raced nearly
eight hundred miles along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mount-
ains. It is marked almost everywhere by remains of these
reptiles, and hence the strata containing them may be called
the Ceratops beds. They are freshwater or brackish deposits,
which form a part of the so-called Laramie, hut are below the
uppermost beds referred to that group. In some places, at least,
they rest upon marine beds which contain invertebrate fossils
characteristic of the Fox Hills deposits." Italics mine.

If we accept literally Marsh's statement that the Ceratops
beds have been traced for eight hundred miles along the east-
ern flank of the Rocky Mountains, it will be necessary to sup-
pose that he includes in the Ceratops beds not only the beds in
Converse Co., Wyoming, but also the Bison beds {Denver beds <>/
Cross) at Denver, and the Judith River beds on the upper Mis-
souri These are very widely separated localities, and no
attempt has ever been made to trace the continuity of the
strata from the one to the other, nor is it at all probable that
such an attempt would meet with success. Professor Marsh
did in the autumn of 1889 spend nearly two days in the Con-
verse Co. locality, and again in 1891 he spent one full day in
the same locality ; but his time was occupied in visiting a few
of the localities in which dinosaui skulls and skeletons and
Laramie mammals had been found. No time was taken to
determine the upper and lower limits of the beds or to trace
the outcrops of the strata. After his visit in 1889 when he
spent nearly two days with our party in the Converse Co.
locality, he took the train for Denver, and in the company of Mr.
George L. Cannon of that city, he spent one-half day examin-
ing the Bison beds (Denver beds). This constitutes Professor

The American Naturalist.

[February,

Marsh's field work in the Ceratops beds. In a total of three and
one-half days field work he seems to have found sufficient time
to " carefully explore " the geological deposits of the Ceratops
beds and to trace them for "eight hundred miles along the
eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains," besides making num-
erous other observations of scientific interest.

Of the many interesting vertebrate fossils described by Pro-
fessor Marsh from the Ceratops beds, those from the Denver
locality were secured by Messrs. Cross, Eldridge and Cannon,
and those from Wyoming and Montana by the writer or men
in his party, with one exception only, namely, the type of
Hadroxmru* bremceps, which was received at New Haven many
years ago, the locality on the label accompanying it being
given as Bear Paw Mountains, Montana, which is of course in-
correct, it doubtless is from the vicinity of Cow Island. With
this one single exception I can confidently state that all the
material described by Professor Marsh as from the Laramie or
Ceratops beds of Wyoming is, without exception, from Con-
verse Co., and was found within an area not exceeding fifteen
miles in width from east to west by thirty miles in length
from north to south ; and all the material described by him as
from Montana, with the one exception mentioned, was found
on the Missouri River between the mouth of Arrow Creek, just
above Judith River, and the mouth of Cow Creek, some forty-
five miles below, and never back farther than ten miles from
the Missouri. It will thus be seen that the actually known
area of the Ceratops beds is indeed very limited, and from these
areas we should exclude certainly, the Judith River or upper
Missouri and very likely the Black Butte locality in southwest-
ern Wyoming. The beds of the former certainly and those of
the latter almost certainly, belong to an older horizon than
those of the Denver or Converse Co. localities ; the latter
may be considered as the typical locality for the Ceratops beds.
All of the dinosaurs from the Judith River country are smaller,
less specialized forms than those from the Converse Co. and
Denver localities, as has already been observed by Marsh.

Marsh's statements that the Ceratops beds are below the up-
permost beds referred to the Laramie and that they rest upon

1 89fi.] Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 1 1 7

marine beds which contain invertebrate fossils characteristic
of the Fox Hills deposits, may well be questioned, especially if
we exclude from the Ceratops beds the Judith Riverbeds and
refer them to a lower horizon, retaining for them the name
,hi>! it), Hirer beds. At no place in the Converse Co. region <lo
the true Ceratops beds, with remains of horned dinosaurs, rest
upon true marine Fox Hills sediments; nor arc the < 'era tops
beds in this region overlaid by strata which could he referred
without doubt to the Laramie. The writer has, in a paper
published in the American Journal of Science of February. IMC!,
stated that the Ceratops beds rest directly upon the Fox Hills
series, and has provisionally referred the very similar series
of sandstones and shales conformably overlying the Ccmfo^s
beds to the upper Laramie ; but it would doubtless be better to
restrict the limits of the Ceratops beds to those strata in which
horned dinosaurs occur, and to consider the underlying 400
feet of barren sandstones as the equivalent of the Judith Rim-
beds. Future investigations will doubtless show that the sand-
stones, shales and lignites overlying the typical Ceratops beds
in Converse Co. should be referred to the Fort Union beds and
not to the Laramie, as, according to Knowlton, the limited flora
sent him now indicates.

The terms Fox Hills and Laramie a.- now used cannot he
taken to represent distinct and different periods of time, for as
has been shown by G. M. Dawson, Selwyn and McConnell in
the Belly River region in Canada, and frequently observed by
the writer on the upper Missouri in Montana, marine beds
with typical Fox Hills fossils have been found interstratifr d
with fresh and brackish water beds containing characteristic
Laramie fossils, showing conclusively that the two periods were
in part at least contemporaneous ; the one representing the
marine and the other fresh or brackish water forms existing at
the same time and in not widely separated regions, these alter-
nations in the nature of the fauna in the same locality having
been brought about by successive encroachments and reces-
sions of the sea. It is not at all impossible that in the region
of Converse Co., Wyoming, marine conditions prevailed con-
tinuously until late in Laramie times, and that during the

118 The American Naturalist. [February,

time of the deposition of the Laramie beds of the Judith River
and Black Butte localities, marine beds with Fox Hills types
of fossils were being deposited over the region of what is now
eastern and central Wyoming. This would account for the
absence in this region, of the lower Laramie, with the smaller
and less specialized horned, and other dinosaurs, characteristic
of it.

Other Localities for Horned Dinosaurs.

In addition to the localities already mentioned, the writer
has seen remains of horned dinosaurs and Hadrosauridse on
the North Platte River opposite the mouth of the Medicine Bow,
about 35 miles below Fort Steele, Wyoming ; along the eastern
flank of the Big Horn Mountains about 40 miles south of Buf-
falo, Wyoming ; on the west side of the Big Horn River between
Fort Custer and Custer Station, Montana ; and on Willow Creek
13 miles north of Musselshell postoffice in Montana. Another
region not examined, but which looked very promising, is
near the town of Havre on the Great Northern Railroad just
north of the Bear Paw Mountains in northern Montana.

Suggestions to Collectors.

Of all the localities for Laramie dinosaurs and mammals
known to the writer, that of Converse Co., Wyoming, is by far
the most promising, and the earnest and intelligent collector
will there meet with a fair amount of success for many years
to come. As will be seen, by reference to the map accompany-
ing this paper, this region is easy of access from the town of
Lusk on the F. E. and M. V. R. R. At this station all neces-
sary camp supplies can be obtained. The fossil beds are easily
worked, the country being quite open and its surface not dis-
figured by deep and impassable canons. There is abundant
grass for horses, wood for fuel, and frequent small springs of
fairly good water.

Vertebrate fossils are never abundant in the Laramie, but
every exposure in this region should be carefully searched and
especially the large sandstone concretions which contain many

1896.] Laramie Mammah and Horned Dinosaur*. 119

of the best skulls and skeletons found in these beds. Fossils
are found in both the shales and sandstones, but are best pre-
served in the latter. The small mammals are pretty generally
distributed but are never abundant, and on account of their
small size are seen with difficulty. They will be most fre-
quently found in what are locally known as " blow outs" and
are almost always associated with garpike scales and teeth,
and teeth and bones of other fish, crocodiles, lizards and small
dinosaurs. These remains are frequently so abundant in
"blowouts'' as to easily attract attention, and when such a
place is found careful search will almost always be rewarded
by the discovery of a few jaws and teeth of mammals. In
such places the ant hills, which in this region are quite num-
erous, should be carefully inspected as they will almost always
yield a goodly number of mammal teeth. It is well to be pro-
vided with a small flour sifter with which to sift the sand con-
tained in these ant hills, thus freeing it of the finer materials
and subjecting the coarser material remaining in the sieve to
a thorough inspection for mammals. By this method the
writer has frequently secured from 200 to 300 teeth and jaws
from one ant bill. In localities where these ants have not yet
established themselves, but where mammals are found to be
fairly abundant it is well to bring a few shovels full of sand
with ants from other ant hills which are sure to be found in
the vicinity, and plant them on the mammal locality. They
will at once establish new colonies and, if visited in succeeding
years, will be found to have done efficient service in collecting
mammal teeth and other small fossils, together with small
gravels, all used in the construction of their future homes. As
an instance of this, I will mention that when spending two
days in this region in 1893, I introduced a colony of ants in a
mammal locality, and on revisiting the same place last season
I secured in a short time from the exterior of this one hill 33
mammal teeth.

Another way to secure these small teeth is to transport the
material to a small stream and there wash it in a large sieve
in the water, the finer material being washed away, but this
treatment is too harsh to give the best results, what few jaws
there are always being broken to bits.

120 The American Naturalist. [February,

In the map accompanying this paper the dotted line marked
Cer. border, indicates approximately the boundaries of the
Ctratops beds in Converse Co. The line to the south and east
indicating the outcrop of the beds, that to the west the point
where they pass under the overlying beds. They extend on
uninterruptedly into Weston Co., but have not been worked
farther north than Schneider Creek. A working party en-
camped at the mouth of Schneider Creek on the Cheyenne
River, would doubtless meet with much success. The map
explains itself; it was drawn by the writer to accompany his
paper on the Ceratopsbeds above referred to, but was not then
published. A copy of it was given by him to Professor Marsh
and a portion of it redrawn, will appear in the 16th Annual
Report of the U. S. Geological Survey accompanying a memoir
by Professor Marsh.

Princeton, N. J., Jan. 6, 1896.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Recent Books on Vegetable Pathology.— (1) Kirchner, Dr

Oskar: I He Krankheiten mui Bwhmliguiigen iinsenr h,n<b> irttrhnjt
lichen Kalturpjkmsen. Stuttgart, 1890, pp. VI, 637 ; (2) Comes, Dr,
O.: Crittogamia Agraria. Naples, 1891, pp. 600; (3) Ward, Dr. H
Marshall : Diseases of Plants. London, (no date), pp. 196 ; (4) Lud
wig, Dr. Friedrich : Lehrbuch der niederen Kryptogamen. Stuttgart,
1892, pp. XV, 672; (5) Tubeuf, Dr. Karl Freiherr von: Pfianzen
'urrh Knjptognme Pant.-iten eerursacht. Berlin, 1895, pp,
XII, 599; (6) Frank, Dr. A. B.: Die Krankheiten der Pfianzen.
Breslau, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, pp. XII, 344; Vol. II, pp. X[, 574; (7)
Prillieux, Ed. : Maladies des Plantes agrieoles et des arbres fruitiers et
forestiers cause par des parasites vegetaux. Paris, 1895, Vol. I, pp. XVI,
421.

It is desired only to call attention to these books at this time by
means of the briefest mention. Some have been published long enough
to enable one to speak freely of their merits and demerits ; others are
very recent additions to the literature of vegetable pathology and use
has not yet demonstrated strong or weak points.

Map of Converse County, Wyoming.

SCALE ABOUT 16 T^ILES TO THE INCH.

1896.] Recent Literature. 121

Dr. Kirchner's book deals with diseases due both to animal and veg-
etable parasites. Its statements are reasonably accurate and it is so
arranged as to greatly facilitate identification of diseases. No illus-
trations.

eases and brief mention of many others. It was the first book of its
kind to pay much attention to bacterial diseases of plants. Its state-
ments are frequently inaccurate and the 17 plates illustrating fungi
and fungous diseases are poorly executed and add nothing to the value
of the book.

Prof. Ward's little book is by far the best thing in English. It dis-
cusses only a few diseases and all of these in a very elementary, popu-
lar way, but there are ma stions, and the facts which
are given are usually stated accurately. There are 53 text figures and
a brief index. A book of about the same size and style by the same
author, on Timber and Some of its Diseases, (1889) makes a good com-
panion volume.

Dr. Ludwig's book is uneven in its make up, some parts being quite
free from erroneous statements and others, those dealing presumably
with the subjects least familiar to the author, needing careful revision.
The book certainly deserves a second edition. From the pains taken
to say something about everything, it is perhaps more generally useful
than any of the preceding or than the following work.

Dr. Tubeuf 's book is very attractive. The type is large and clear,
and the unhackneyed character of the illustrations, many of which
were prepared expressly for this work, i3 especially commendable.
The treatment of certain subjects indicates that the author depended
upon imperfect reviews rather than on the original papers, e. g., Wak-
ker's bacterial disease of hyacinths, and Mayer's mosaic disease of
tobacco ; but the book as a whole has not been read carefully enough
to warrant any extended criticism.

Dr. Frank's book is the second revised edition of his well known
handbook, Die Krankheiten der Pfianzen, published in 1880, and now
sadly out of date. Much new matter has been added and an earnest
effort made to bring the subject up to date. This has succeeded as
well, perhaps, as the rapidly growing state of the science will admit.
The first volume deals with non-parasitic diseases ; the second with fun-
gous parasites. Most of the figures appear to be old, and the letter
press is indifferent.

Dr. Prillieux's book is attractive in appearance, but some of it tt
sketchy and rather unsatisfactory, and due credit is not always given.

122 The American Naturalist. [February

Quite often the reader finds himself wishing the author had stated some
matter exactly rather than vaguely, e. g., germination of the oospores
of Plasmopara viticola. Prillieux is probably right in maintaining
that Viala has not satisfactorily determined the aetiology of Brunni-
sure and the California vine disease, the microscopic appearances
ascribed to a Plasmodiophora being quite as likely due to the effect of
strong reagents on the protoplasm of the cell. Some of the figures in
this book are excellent, others are very poor. There is no index.

It is to be hoped that Dr. Sorauer will now bring out another edi-
tion of his Handbiich der Pflanzenkrankheiten, or at least of the 2nd
volume on parasitic plants which was issued in 1886 and needs revis-
ion badly. All of these books are useful to American students, and
should certainly find place on the book shelves of every vegetable pathol-
ogist. It would seem that the time is not ripe for the appearance of
standard American works on this subject. There is, however, great
activity in tho study of plant diseases in this country, and we may look
for a crop of them within the next decade.— Erwin F. Smith.

The Iowa University Bahama Expedition.1— The history of
an educational and scientific experiment is given Mr. C. C. Nutting in
this octavo volume of 251 pages. It is published as Bulletins Nos. 1
and 2, Vol. Ill, of the laboratories of Natural History of the Iowa
State University. The zoology of the region visited is treated of in a
general way with a view to giving an idea of the facies of the collec-
tions from the several localities. The marine and land invertebrata
are treated of quite fully, but none of the vertebrates receive much
attention excepting the birds. The beauties of marine life are graphi-
cally described, and a considerable number of illustrations add to the
general excellence of the get up of the book. An appendix gives a list
of commissary stores actually used during the expedition.

Mr. Nutting, in summing up the results of the expedition, draws at-
tention to the fact that this enterprise demonstrates the practicability
of accomplishing such results at a cost which is merely nominal.

The Shrews of North America.2 — The tenth number in the
North American Fauna series published by the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture, contains three papers on the Shrews: A revision of the
genera Blarina andNotiosorex by Dr. C. H. Merriam, a eynop.-is of the

•The Bahama Expedition. Hulls. Nos. 1 and 2, Vol. Ill, Laboratories Nat.
Hist. Iowa State Univ. Iowa City 1895.

* North American ] . , \ in, Wu- _ s* i in prying papers by C

IS*.]

Recent Literature.

129

genus Sorex by tl

the long-

tailed

le same author, and a discuss

Shrews of .

■•astern

United States by (;. S. Miller.

dr.

Tu regar

d to the

short tailed Shrews of the gei

larina. Dr

\br-

■n de-

scribed fro

in the I

'nited States, 2 from .Mexico, 1

from

a and

eastern Un

,sta Ric
uted Sta

a. Twelve new forms are he
tea and 9 from Mexico, makir

!;,:';,;;,."::

;;. ;|;;;

genus now

known.

The type localities are given

and t

he Lrr,,-ra

nliical

d str 1

a. A c<

miplete synonomy accompanie

s each

descripti.

Dr. Mer

nam's ><

jcond paper is a synopsis of tin

ispeci

es „f Sure:

E, and

is based on

an ex a

ruination of 1200 specimens.

In tli

is material

were

found 20 a

ew form

s which are here described. I:

II this:

paper, ns

in tie-

first, careful attent

ion has been given to the synonomy

The onl

y genen

l of Soricidae included in thi

s moi

mgraph li

v Dr

Merriain a

re Blari

na Gray, Notiosorex Baird am

1 Sore

I Linn.

Mr. Mill

erVeon

tribution is a study of the long

■ taile*

1 Shrews ,

■ f the

eastern Un

ited Sta

ites. The author gives in deta

ilthe

history of

each

species. 1

Hie descriptions include the type local

!ty. geographic i

listri-

bution, and detailed information under the head of general remarks.

Figures of all the species described are given on 12 page plates, and
they are of excellent quality. The monographs are the most import-
ant contributions to the subject that have "been made, and are indispen-
sable to the student of X. American mammalia.

Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. III.3 — A quarto volume con-

taining the several reports of the geological eorp>, with accompanying
papers of the geology of special formations and areas. The work in the
southwest half of the State was done under the immediate supervision
of Dr. Keyes who contributes three papers on the geology of that sec-
tion, and also one on the glacial scorings in Iowa. Mr. Calvin dis-
cusses the composition and origin of the Iowa Chalk. The Paleozoic
strata in the northeastern part of the State, and certain Carboniferous
and Devonian outliers in the eastern region are reported upon by Mr.
Norton. The Cretaceous deposits of the Sioux Valley by Mr. Bain
and certain buried River Channels by Mr. Gordon. The illustration*
iuclude 37 plates, a number of maps, and 34 figures in the text. We
are glad to learn that the survey is in a prosperous condition, and hope
that its work will be appreciated at its true worth by the State authori-

! l;ej..

124 The American Naturalist. [February,

Duration of Niagara Falls and History of the Great
Lakes.4 — This work contains the researches of the author which have
been published in America and Europe, on the Origin of the Great
Lake Basins; Changes of Continental Altitudes; Deformation of
Beaches ; Glacial Dams ; Births of Lakes Ontari6, Erie, Huron, etc. ;
Changes of River Courses; and the Hi. -Tory and ! Miration of Niagara
Falls. It is one of the most important works on geological science that
has been produced in this or any other country as an original research.
It furnishes a standard of estimation of postglacial history for this con-
tinent, which must always be referred to in all questions relating to the
antiquity of man, as well as those rel distribution

of land and water.

The text is fully illustrated with maps, section drawings, etc. One
of the fine page plates which accompany the work is a reproduction
from a camera obscura drawing made by Henry Ransford in 1832, the
oldest accurate picture of the Falls known to the author.-

The author estimates that the period which has elapsed since the
falls were at Lake Ontario amounts to 32000 vears.

Korean Games.5 — In pursuance of a theory that games must be
regarded as survivals from primitive conditions, under which they
originated in magical rites and chiefly as a means of divination. Mr.
Stewart Culin has made an extensive study of the games of Korea.
He finds that there were two principal systems of divination in Eastern
Asia from which games arose, in both of which the arrow or its substi-
tute was employed as the implement of magic. Of the 97 games de-
scribed in his book, 23 are directly connected with some such use of the
arrow. A large number of the other games described consist of ath-
letic sports ceremonially practiced in the sacred pavilions of Korea, and
like the divatory tugofwar, still retain traces of their primeval divina-
tory character.

The illustrations are almost entirely by native artists, and they
give the book a value altogether unique. They comprise 22 col-
ored plates and 135 figures in the text. The subject is a very curious
one, and as treated by Mr. Culin, it becomes an important guide to the
history of human migrations and human thought.

at Lakes. By J.

Recent Books and Pamphlet

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

re Reports of the Iowa Geol. Survey, Vol. IV, 189^

, J. A.— < >n a Collection of Mammi
\\\ Price, with Field Notes by the C
)1. VII, 189.'). From the author.

ing the Aboriginal Uses of Plants. Part J of Bull. U. S. Natl. M
Washington, lS9-r>. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Cox, E. S.— The Albion Phosphate District.

Geological Sketches of Florida. Extr. Trans. Min. Engir,

Eastman, C. R.— Beitnige zur Kenntuis der Gattung Oxyrhina mil
j og v..n n, yrh ma manUOi Agassiz, Aus Palaeontogra
Bd. Stuttgart, 1894. From the author.

EisF.N. G— Memoirs of the California Acad. Sci., Vol. II, No. 4, 18
Coast Oligochaeta. From tlie author.

Final Report of the Geology of Minnesota, Vol. Ill, Pt. I, Paleonto
>'. II. Win.hell, State Geologist.

I Bureau of Ethnology. Washir,

i Naturalist.

-Tepee Butte*. Extr. Bu
erne. Transla

Mali, C W. and F. W. Sardeson.— The Magnesian Series of tii
rn States. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From th«

Kingsbury, B. F. — The Histological Structure of the Enteron of 4
laim. Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Microscop. Soc., 1894. From the s

Laboratory Studies of the Oregon State Agric. College, Vol. I, N
f. L. Washburn.

Mason, O. T.— Migration and Food Quest. A Study in the P«op]

Proceedings of the An
the 43d Meeting, 1894.

Chicago, 1895. From the A

Ries, JL— On a Granite Diorite from Harrison. Westchester Co., New York.
Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIV, 1895. From the author.

Salomon. W.— Geologische und paleontologische Studies Bber die Marmolata
(mit Aiis-etilu-- der < .u-tropoden). Paleontographica, Zweiundvierstiger Bd.
Erste bis dritte Lief. Stuttgart, 1895.

Schuchert, C— Directions for Collecting and Preparing Fossils. Pt. K. Bull.

jugate to a straight line with respect to a triangle, Pt. I. Boston, New York and
Chicago, 1895. From the author.

Seeley, H. G— Note on the Skeleton of Pariamurm bainii. Extr. Geol.

Mag., London, Dec. IV, Vol. II, 1895. The Thecodontosaurus and Paleosau-

rus. On the type of the Genus Massospondylus, and on some Vertebrae and

Limb bones of M. (?) brownn. Extrs. Ann. Mag. Nat Hist. (6) XV, 1895.

On Ilnrtfilntnw* itt»;.wkanew SaurNchian I-Wil from Barkly East, Cape

Shufei.dt, R. W-— Lectures on Biology delivered before t
University of America, 1892. From the author.

-L'Age du Conglomerate de Sacel, Jud. G
l France (3), t. XXII, 1894. From the author.

1896.] Petrography. 127

Tassin, W— Directions for Collecting Minerals. Pt. II. Bull. U. S. Natl.
Mus., No. 39. Washington, 1895. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Veth, P. J.— Overgedrut dit den Feestbundel van Taal-, Letter-, Gescheid-, en
Aardrjksknndige Bijdragen ter gelegenheid van zijn Tachtigsten Geboortedag-

Weidman, S.— On the Quart/ Keratopliyre ana Associate! Hooks of the North
Range of the Baraboo Bluffs. Extr. Bull. I'niv. WUc, Science Series, Vol. 1,
No. 2, 1895. From the Editors of the Bulletin.

White, D— The Pottsville Series along New River, West Virginia. Extr.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895- From the author.

Williams. T.— Tin- Church's Duty in the Matter of Secular Activities. Ad-

Tooth of Oryrhina from the Red (
V, Vol. I, 1894. From the author,
i and Water Horizons in Southern .
te Geologist for 1893. Trenton, 18

PETROGRAPHY.1

Igneous Rocks of St. John, N. B.— \V. N. Mathew has con-
tinued his work on the igneous rocks of St. John, N. B.,2 contributing
in a recent article an account of the effusive and dyke rocks of the
region. All the rocks described are believed to be pre-Cambrian in
age. They embrace quartz-porphyries, felsites, porphyries, diabases
and feldspar-porphyrites among the effusive rocks, and diorite-porphy-
rites, diabas— ilea among the dyke forms. In some

of the quartz-porphyries perlitic cracks may still be recognized, and in
the felsite porphyries some spherulites. Tuffs of all the effiisives are
abundant. A soda granite with augite and green hornblende and
probably a little glaucophane wa> a bo met with. It is intrusive, and
has a composition represented by the figures:

SiO, Ti02 A1,03 FeA FeO MnO CaO MgO Na20 K20 C02 Loss
64.86 .70 15.02 5.53 1.01 .18 2.61 1.42 3.92 2.37 .55 1.73
1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

The diorite-porphyrite has a groundmass of idiomorphic hornblende,
lathshaped feldspars and some interstitial quartz, with phenocrysts of
the same minerals, but principally of feldspar. Among the diabases is
a quartzose variety.

Eruptive Rocks from Montana. — Among some specimens of
eruptive rocks obtained from Gallatin, Jefferson and Madison Coun-
ties, Montana, Merrill3 finds basalts, andesites, lamprophyres, syenites,
porphy rites, wehrlites, harzburgites and websterites, some of which pos-
sess peculiar characteristics. A hornblende andesite. for instance, con-
tains large corroded brickred pleochroic apatite crystals, whose color is
due to innumerable inclusions scattered through them. The ground-
mass of some of the basalts has a spherulitic structure. The wehrlite
is a holocrystalline aggregate of pale green diallage, reddish brown
biotite, colorless olivine and a few patches of plagioclase. Its structure
is estaclastic or gran uli tic, the larger crystals being surrounded by an
aggregate of smaller ones. The websterite consists of green diallage
and colorless eustatite with included foliae of mica and occasional inter-
stitial areas of feldspar, and is thus related to gabbro. Some of the
lamprophyres are composed of groups of polysomatic olivines or of oli-
vine and augite in a scaly granular groundmass of lighter colored min-
erals, through which are scattered^ small flakes of brown biotite and
tiny augite microlites. This structure is accounted for on the supposi-
tion that the granular groups of olivine and of olivine and augite belong
to an older series of crystalline products than those of the ground-

Porphyrites and the Porphyritic Structure. — In a general
account of th< tins of Colorado, Utah and Arizona,

Cross' gives a brief synopsis of the characteristics of the rocks that con-
stitute their cores. These rocks comprise augite, hornblende and horn-
blende mica-porphyrifes, diorites and quartz-porphyi ites. All contain
phenocrysts of plagioclase and of the iron bearing silicates, with the
feldspars largely predominating. These upon separating left for consol-
idation into the groundmass a magma which upon crystallization
yielded a granular aggregate consisting largely of quartz and ortho-
clase. No pressure effects were seen in any of the sections studied. All
are porphyritic with ft granular groundmass, which diflfers in the different
roeks, principally in the proportion of its constituents. The porphy-
ritic structure as defined by the author Is not the result of the recur-

rence of crystallization, producing several generations of crystals, but
it is a structure exhibiting contrasts in the size and form of the com-
ponent crystals of a rock, resulting from the differences in conditions
under which the different minerals crystallized.

Granophyre of Carrock Fell, England. — In the tarrock Fell
district is a red granophyre closely associated with the gabbros. This
rock has recently been studied by Harker,5 who had previously inves-
tigated the gabbros. The normal type of the granophyre is an augitic
variety in which the augite occurs as a deep green species which is idio-
morphic toward the feldspars. Oligoclase is also present as idiomorphie
crystals in a reddish quartz-feldspar groundmass with the typical gran-
ophyric structure. The composition of the rocks is represented as fol-

8iO,

As the rock approaches the gabbro it becomes less acid and the pro-
portion of augite in it increases. This is the lower portion of the mass
as it was originally intruded. Its more basic nature as compared with
the rest of the rock is explained as due to the absorption of parts of the
gabbro with which the granophyre is in contact.

The same author6 also records the existence of a greisen, which is a
phase of the well known Skiddau granite. The greisen consists essen-
tially of quartz and muscovite, but remnants of orthoclose are still to
be detected in it. The mica is regarded as having been derived largely
from the feldspar.

Sheet and Neck Basalts in the Lausitz.— The basalts of the
neighborhood of Seifeirnersdorf aud Warnsdorf in the Lausitz, Saxony,
occurs in sheets according to Hazard,7 and in volcanic rocks. The
sheet rocks are nepheline basalts, nepheline basanites aud feldspataic
glass basalts. The neck forms are hornblende basalts, sometimes with
and sometimes without nepheline. The constituents of all are magne-
tite, apatite, augite, biotite, nepheline and glass in varying quantities,
with feldspar, olivine and hornblende in different phases. Sometimes
the mineral nepheline is absent, but this happens mainly in the glaesy
varieties, where its components are to be found iu the glassy base.
There are intermediate varieties between the hornblende and the oli-

s Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., 1895, P. 125.

130 The American NaturaliM. [February,

vine basalts corresponding to geological masses intermediate in charac-
teristics between volcanic sheets and necks. In many of the neck
rocks the hornblende is seen to have been partially resorbed and
changed to augite. The continuation of the resorbtive process until
every trace of the hornblende was dissolved, may account for the ab-
sence of the mineral in the sheet rocks.

Petrographical Notes.— In an article whose aim is to call forth
more accurate determinations of the feldspars in volcanic rocks, and
one which gives a practical method for making this determination,
Fouqu£8 has described briefly the volcanic rocks of the Upper Auver-
gne, the acid volcanics of the Isle of Milo and the most important rocks
in the Peleponeses and in Santorin. Among the varieties described
are doleritic basalts, andesitic basalts, labradorites, andesites, obsidians,
trachyte andesites, phonolites. andesitic diabases, rhyolites, dacites and
normal basalts. The labradorites are composed largely of microlites
of labradorite with a few augites and tiny crystals of olivine in an al-
tered glassy base. In all these cases the author has shown that the
rocks contain several different feldspars at the same time, and in eacli
case he has determined their nature. The method made use of in the
determination is based on the observation of extinction angles in plates
cut perpendicular to the bisectrices.

In a well written article on complementary rocks and radial dykes
Pirsson" suggests the name of oxyphyre for the acid complementary
rock, corresponding to the term lamprophyre for the basic forms. He
also calls attention to the fact that the dykes radiating from eruptive
centers are usually filled with younger material than that which com-
poses the core at the center. The dykes cutting the central mass will
generally be oxyphyres and the more distant ones lamprophyres.

Cordierite gneisses are reported by Katzer10 from Deutshbrod and
Humpolitz in Bohemia, where they are intruded by granite veins, and
where masses of them are occasionally completely surrounded by gran-
itic material.

In the examination of a large series of granites and gneisses from the
borders of the White Sea, Federow11 discovered that garnet is present
in large quantities when plagioclase is absent and vice versa.

In a general article on the Catoctin belt in Maryland and Virginia,

" Bull. Soc. Fran.-, d. Min., XVII, p. 42i>.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 131

Keith1" gives very brief descriptions of the granites, quartz porphyries,
andesites and the Oatoctin schist of the region. The last named rock
is apparently a sheared basic volcanic. All the rocks present evidence
of having suffered pressure metamorphism.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe.— I, Comparison

of the American and Eikopkan forms of Hyracothkrhm.—

Historically speaking llyracotherium is one of the oldest of known
fossil Perissodactyla. and it is of importance phylogenetically to com-
pare the representatives of this genus in En rope with those of America,
in order to acquire an exact knowledge as to the evolution of the molar
cusps of the New and Old World species. My attention was called to
this subject on account of having studied Euprotogonia of the Puerco,
a genus which as well known, is considered to have one of the most
primitive types of Ungulate molars.

The importance of having accurate drawings of the teeth of fossil
mammals is nowhere better illustrated than in Hyraeotheriuvi. In the
case of the enlarged drawing of the teeth1 of H. (=Pliolopkwi) r«ipi-
ceps which has been copied extensively in works on vertebrate paleonto-
logy, we obtain quite an erroneous idea of the exact form of the
molar cusps.

Kowalevsky2 in his great work on " Aitthnu-otherium *' tigu res some
of the molars of the type of Hyracotherium namely : H. leporinum. and
I should judge from his description that he had studied Owen's type in
London. However, his criticism of Owen's drawing of the type of
Hyracotherium is very accurate, and as Kowalevsky remarks, Owen's
figures gives one the idea that the teeth of the type are strictly buno-
dont, whereas they are really transitional in structure between a real
bunodont type, such as Eupr«togonia and a truly lophodont form like
Systemodon.

» 14th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 285.

132 The American Naturalist. [February,

On my recent visit to London3 I took the opportunity to examine
both of the types of HyrSbotherium (H. leporinum and H. (=Pliolo-
ph tu mlpieeps). In general the external cusps of the superior molars
in both forma is lenticular in section, being considerably drawn out
anteroposteriorly, and the intermediate tubercles are well extended
transversely. In the drawing of the type specimen of H (=P.) vulpi-
ceps the molars are represented as greatly enlarged, and their internal
portions shown as complete. In the original specimen the teeth are
damaged internally, and it is with some diffiulty that the form of the
cusps can be made out. However, I am satisfied that the internal cusps
are not really huiioiluut u- shown in the plate, but like the American
forms of tltjrurnthi ri>nn these cusps are extended transversely and form
by wear slight i mediate tubercles. In comparing

the upper molars of both types of Hyraeotherium of England with those
of the Wasatch of America, I find them to be in exactly the same stage
of evolution as to the form of the cusps.

Lydekker4 speaks of the posterior transveise crest <>f the upper molars
in the type of H. (=P.) vuljmepsaa not being represented as sufficcntly
well developed in the plate, but this crest on the last molar is drawn
correctly, and on the other two molars it is as nearly as well developed.
A comparison of the upper molars in both types of ILmtoMherium with
those of Euprotogonia, reveals the fact that the form of the cusps in the
former genus has undergone a progressive change ; and this is seen
especially on the last upper molar which is quadritubercular with a
large development of the metaloph, whereas in Euprotogonia the last
upper molar is tri tubercular. Again the third upper premolar in the
Knu'li.-h tv[H.-> <if IIi/r<i':ot/n rhini is tritubercular whereas in Euproto-
gonia, this tooth has only one external cusp.

The species of H. (= Plinlophu*) mfpictps is of importance, as
in this specimen we have both upper and lower teeth belonging to the
same individual. I should like to particularly emphasize the point
that the last lower premolar in the type of Pfiotophua is Ampler in
.-■trurturr tluiii fheprd true mo/nr, the posterointernal ru.<p beinq <ih*t>nt.
This character distinguishes this type from some forms of the American
Wasatch which have been referred to Pachynolophus.

3 1 wish to ex|>r»-H- h,MV my thank- for the privileges I enjoyed in examining
specimens in I ty to thank Sir

W. H. Flower for his kindness. I am also indebted to him for having been able
to visit the Royal College of Surgeons. Mr. C- W. Andrews of the I r«ologic*l

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 133

The question now arises what is Pttrhtmolophus, or in other words
what is the exact generic definition of this genus, and does it really
occur in the Wasatch of America. It is usually stated that Parhyiw-
lophus is separated from Hymcotherium hy the fact, that the last pre-

definition will apply to only one European species, namely: Pitchy nolo-
phus (=Hyracothe,iin,i - sidrmHthints, and even in this species the last
upper premolar exhibits a good deal of variation in its structure.
Kiitimeyer' figures Pietot's species, /•*. sideroiit hints, which in this spec-
imen has the last upper premolar molariform, but in the same plate
(fig. 21) is given another last upper premolar, which Rutitneyer referred
to the same species. This tooth is tritubercular, or simpler in structure
than the true molars.

Among the specimen.- of Parhy)i,d»/,h us in the collection of the Jar-
din des Plantes, Paris, there is a series of loose teeth from theSiderolithie
du Mauremont, which are of considerable interest as they were studied
by Kowalevsky, and referred by him to P. siderolithieas. This series
contains at least one last upper premolar, and it has exactly the same
character as that figured l>y liutimeyer, in other words this is another
case in which this tooth in P. sider<dithinis is simple in structure. In
Patdtiintdttphti.-- thmt/ii a- 'per premolar

is tritubercular, and this tooth has the same structure in P. demaratU.
In Pachynolophus cessarasicus figured by FilhoP from the Middle Eocene
of (essai. the last upper premolar has only one internal cone and the
two transverse ridges diverging from it are well developed. The length
of the skull in this species is about one-third greater than that of Hyra-
eothrrlum renticolum of the Wasatch.

Numerous species of Pacht/htdo/ditts occur in the different horizons of
the Eocene of France, but in nearly all cases, they are represented
either by upper or lower molars which were not found together. I
believe the English Hyracothrriniu hp<,rinum is the only known form
in Europe in which both upper and lower molars were found associated,
and actually belong to the same individual.

As is well known it is the last lower premolar which first becomes
molariform, consequently if we find forms in which this tooth is simpler
in structure than the molars, we can safely conclude that none of the
superior premolars are molariform. In a jaw referred to Pachynolophus
in the collection of the Jardin des Plantes from Phosphorites, contain-
ing all the lower premolars, the last tooth of this series is not molari-

5EocuneSangethier^ Well

134 The American Naturalist.

[F,.i

form. As the Phosphorites are considered to represent the top of the
Eocene, we should certainly expect to find in any species of Pachynolo-
phus from this formation the last premolar as complex in structure as
the molars. In this jaw, however, the last premolar is not molariform
and the collection contains a crushed skull of the same species of
Paehynolophus in which all the superior premolars are simpler in
structure than the true molars.

I can find no good generic differences based on tooth structure sepa-
rating PropalKotherium from Paehynolophus, and shall consider the
former genus as a synonym of the latter in this paper. In Propalceo-
therium the species are much larger than in those of Paehynolophus,
but certainly size alone can not be considered as of value in generic
definitions. In all of the species included in Propalceotherivm, the pre-
molars are simpler in structure than the true molars.

I believe, however, if we divide the various known species of the
Hyracotheriince into genera according to the complication of the pre-
molars, that we shall be adopting an artificial character, and as shown
above. Of al 1 the known form s of Paehynolophus, P. siderolithicus is the
only one in which the last upper premolars is molariform and even this
species shows considerable variation in this respect. I conclude then
that the only natural classification of these forms is a careful analysis
of the form of the molar cusps, and to group the species into genera
according to the development of the same ; I refer here especially to
the European forms of ITyracotherium and Paehynolophus.

Having thus attempted to show that in nearly all the European
species of Paehynolophus the last premolar is simpler in structure than
any of the true molars, I come to consider what are the generic differ-
ences separating Hyracotherivm from Paehynolophus. Kowalevsky
studied Paehynolophus siderolithicus, and if we compare the molars of
this species with those of Hyracotherium angustidens from the Wasatch
of America, we observe at once that the external cusp of the

nd they i

upp,,r

molars in the latter species are nearly round

scarcely at all flattened. There is no mesostyle and the height of the
crown is very low or strongly brachydont. In P. siderolithicus the
ectoloph is considerably lengthened from above downwards, and the
external cusps are strongly flattened, with a prominent mesostyle. In
all the species of Paehynolophus which I have studied the molar crowns
are higher than those of Hyracotherium, and in all the mesostyle is
strongly developed. The latter characters demonstrate that the molars
of Paehynolophus have reached a higher stage of evolution than those of
Hyracotherium, and this transformation in the form of the molar cusps

1396.] Geology and Paleontology. 135

points to a still higher differentiation 90 characteristic of the later
genera of the Equine series. The characters above enumerated as dis-
tinguishing the molars of Pachynolophus from those of Hyracotherium,
I think should be considered as generic. At least they are the only
valid ones which I can discover at present.

Species of Perissodactyle Ungulatus allied to Hyracotherium occur
in the Wasatch of America, which have been referred to Pachynolo-
phus. In these forms the last inferior premolar is truly molariform,

crowns and nearly bunodont external cusps. As this a combination of
characters, which as far as known does not occur in the true Pachyno-
lophus of Europe, I think accordingly that these species should be
placed in a different genus from Pachynolophus. Prof. E. I). Cope has
shown that the generic name Orotherium Marsh, has been anticipated
by Orotherium Aymard, consequently I believe that the name Orohippus
should be reinstated, and applied to those species of Hyracotherium
which have the last lower premolar truly molariform in structure. I
have already stated that in the type specimen of Hyracotherium
(^Pliolophus) vulpiceps the last lower premolar is simpler in structure
than in any of the true molars. Accordingly those species with the
complex lower premolar represent a true generic stage, and as is already
shown they differ from the true Pachynolophus. — Charles Earle,
Laboratoire de Palazontologie Jardin des Plantes, Paris, Dec. 20, 1895.

The Glossopteris Flora in Argentina.— A collection of fossil
plants from Bajo de Velis, a league from the entrance to the Cantana
valley in Argentina, has enabled Dr. F. Kurtz to establish the age of
the fossiliferous shales of that region. The author gives tabulated com-
parisons of the flora of the Bajo de Velis beds with similar floras found
at the Cape of Good Hope (Ekka-Kimberly beds), in peninsular India
(Kaharbari beds), in New South Wales (Newcastle beds) and in Tas-
mania (Mersey Coalfield). From these tables it is seen than the spec-
imens found at Bajo de Velis are most nearly related to those of the
lower Gondwanas of India. Dr. Kurtz accordingly corrrelates the
fossiliferous shales of Bajo de Velis with the lower Gondwanas of India,
and agrees with the paleophytologist, O. Feistmantel, in assigning these
beds to the Permian age.

Up to date but three rock formations in Argentina have yielded fossil
plants: Retaraito in San Juan, which has been shown by Dr. Szajno-
cha to be Lower Carboniferous ; Bajo de Velis which is Permian ; and

•136 The American Xaturalut. [February,

a series of beds in Mendoza', San Juan and La Rioja determined by
Prof. Geinitz as Rhfetic.

These data are commented on by the Director of the Geological Sur-
vey of India to the effect that one of the chief points of interest in con-
nection with the discovery of Gondwana plants in Argentina lies in the
fact that we have au unquestionable lower carboniferous series (Reta-
mito) in the neighborhood of which (and probably unconformably to
it) a series of beds is found, which contains well known Lower Gond-
wana species of plants, thereby limiting the geological range of the
lowest beds of it, at all events to upper Carboniferous at must, which is
a further confirmation of the views generally adopted by the Geological
Survey of India. The genus Glossopteris proper is wanting, but the
other genera characteristic of that flora are present. (Rec. Geol. Surv.
Ind., Vol. XXVIII, 1895.)

Geological News.— Paleozoic— From a petrographic study of
the igneous rocks near St. John, N. B., Mr. W. D. Matthew classifies
the Pre-Cambrian of that region as follows : A. Laurentian composed of
(1) Portland group and (2) Intrusive granite, B. Huronian composed
of (3) Coldbrook group, of volcanic rocks, (4) Coastal group, of volcanic
and sedimentary rocks, (5) Etchemiuiau or Basal Series, of sediu hi itarv
rocks, and (6) Kingston group, of metamorphosed volcanic.-. ( New-
York Acad! Sci. XIV, 1895.)

Micsozorc. — In studying the fossils obtained by M. Gautier from
Madagascar, M. Boule comes to the conclusion that the Jurassic deposits
of eastern Africa and those of the western slopes of Madagascar appear
to have been laid down in a great interior sea, an Ethiopian Afediter-

peninsula.

Furthermore, that during the Upper Cretaceous there was land com-
munication between the African continent, Madagascar and Hindus-
tan. (Bull. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, 1895.)

According to R. W. Ells, the whole range of North Mountain, which
euts off the valleys of Corn wall is: and Annapolis rivers from the Bay of
Fundy, is an overflow of igneus rock which has issued through a line
of fissure transversing the red Triassic beds, and is, therefore more re-
cent than the latter. At several places the trap is overlaid by newer
sedimentary beds of limestones and shales. No fossils have as yet been
found in these sedimentary strata. The author calls attention to their
importance and the desirability of a thorough exploration in order to
determine their age since they represent the highest group of stratified
sedimentary rocks in Eastern Canada. (Trans. Nova Scotian Inst.
Sci. Halifax, Vol. 1, 1894, p. 416.)

1S96.] Vegetable Physiology. 137

Two new species of Fishes from the Rolling Downs Formation
(Lower Cretaceous) of Queensland are described by A. S. Woodward.
They represent species of the genera Portheus and Cladoeyclus, to
which he gives the names «n.4ra/i.$ and weetii respectively. This dis-
covery of these fossils is of considerable interest, since with the excep-
tion of a few Selachian teeth and vertebra?, and a tine species of Belon-
ostomus, no cretaceous ichthyolites of importance have hitherto been
described from this colouv. (Ann. Mag. Nat lint i; » X I V 18<»4 P
444.)

Cenozoic— Fossil Ants are reported from the Bembridge limestone
(Eocene) of the Isle of Wight. They are referred by P. B. Brodie to
the genera Formica, Myrmica and Camp.motus, and some others not
yet described. The first two genera have also been found in the Baltic
Amber. (Nature, 1895, p. .570.)

The Champlain epoch is correlated 'by Prof. Hitchcock with the
Mecklenburg stage of Geikie. Both have the characteristic marine
mollusca fauna, the Arctic flora (Yoldia beds of the Baltic) and best
illustrate the isobases of De Geer. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer Vol 7
1895.)

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.1
Smut Fungi by Oscar Brefeld.— At last we have in two big
quartos, with numerous plates, the long promised volumes on the smut
fungi. The work which is here completed was begun more than 12
years ago. The earlier experiments were gathered together and pub-
lished in 1883 in a volume of 220 pages with numerous plates under
the title of Die Brandpilze I, forming Heft V of Dr. Brefeld 's I'nter-
suchungen, the most important and revolutionary portion of this vol-
ume being the demonstration that the smut fungi, a goodly number at
least and presumably all of them, although previously supposed to be
strictly parasitic were capable of growing saprophytically and of multi-
plying indefinitely in dung in the form of sprout conidia, closely resem-
bling yeasts, if not identical with many forms previously referred to
this group. Some years later in an address before tbe agricultural club
of Berlin, Dr. Brefeld communicated the most important results of his
1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,

138 The American Naturalist. [February,

magnificent infection experiments, but now for the first time we have
full details of all the laboratory and field investigations. In the limits
of this review it will be possible to notice only the first of these two
volumes. This forms Heft XI of the Untersuchungen and is entitled
Die Brandpilse II. It deals principally with infection experiments
and gives in full the results obtained with Udilago Carbo on oats, U.
omenta on sorghum, and U. maydis on maize. These experiments were
carried on through a period of four years with striking results and in
case of corn, with most unexpected ones. Space forbids entering into
much detail. Those who wish for details will naturally consult the
volume itself. Suffice to say that the infective material consisted of
the yeast-like conidia propagated in nutrient solutions made from fresh
horse dung.

In case of oats the best results from direct infection were 17 to
20 per cent, of smutty plants, obtained by spraying during the
earliest stage of germination. Infections made when the embryo was
one cm. long gave only 7 to 10 per cent of smutty plants; when it was
2 cm. long (500 plants), only 2 per cent became smutty. When the
plumule had pushed through the enfolding sheath scarcely any of the
plants could be infected, 200 seedlings in this stage yielding only 1 per
cent of smutty plants and 200 more remaining entirely free. The in-
fections took place through the young axis and also through the sheath-
ing leaf so that both Wolff and Kuhn were right, but a majority of the
infections were through the young axis. In a second series of experi-
ments garden earth was sprayed with the smut conidia and two days
later oats were planted 1 cm. deep and subsequently transplanted to the
open field : 300 of these seedlings yielded 5 per cent of smutty plants,
and 300 more, 4 per cent., i. e. a much smaller per cent than was anti-
cipated. In a third series fresh horse dung was mixed with garden
earth which was then abundantly impregnated with the smut conidia.
Three days later oats which had been soaked but were not yet germin-
ated were planted in this soil at a depth of scarcely 1 cm. These seed-
lings were divided into two lots, 300 were kept for a time in the labor-
atory at a temperature of over 15°C, and 300 were placed in the cellar
where the temperature did not exceed 7°C. Of the 300 kept in the
laboratory 27 to 30 per cent finally became smutty ; of those kept in
the cellar, where germination proceeded more slowly, 40 to 46 percent
became smutty. This shows clearly that fresh horse dung greatly
favors the development of smut and that weather which retards germi-
nation is also favorable. In the fourth series of experiments the infec-
ftted for a loner time arti-

1896.J Vegetable Physiology. 139

ficially, a few of the spores being transferred to a fresh nutrient solu-
tion every four days. The first trial (500 seedlings) was with conidia
which had been cultivated in this manner for six months. These seed-
lings yielded from 7 to 10 per cent of smutty plants. The second trial
was with conidia which had been cultivated for a year. This experi-
ment was almost wholly negative, 300 of the seedlings yielded no
smutty plants and 200 more gave only 1 per cent. The explanation
was not far to seek since at the end of this period the conidia had
almost wholly lost the ability to send out germtubes and along with it
the power to infect the plants. Microscopic examination showed that
the germtubes can penetrate into any part of the young seedling but
this does not necessarily mean infection. The latter takes place only
when the smut hyphse are able to reach that part of the plant where the
smut beds form. In all of these experiments the smut germs penetrated
the young seedlings but the smut beds appeared only in the floral
organs, some months intervening between the entrance of the fungus
and the appearance of the smut in a totally different part of the plant.
Those germtubes which enter the plant and fail to reach the incipient
ovaries become enclosed in the mature tissues of the host plant and are
incapable of further growth and this frequently occurs even in young
seedlings.

The infections obtained with the big sorghum plant are even
more interesting. Nearly all of the first series of infections were
destroyed by a hail storm, but of the 32 plants which escaped 12 be-
came smutty. The seedlings of the second series were infected indoor
in March and set out the first of May. The plants grew luxuriantly
and by the middle of August had reached a height of 5 to 7 feet. The
first smutty panicle appeared August 16 and for some time thereafter
it appeared as if all of the plants would be smutty, the infected panicles
developing first. Finally sound ones began to appear. In the end
there were 158 smutty plants out of 274. A third series of experiments
was instituted to determine in what stage of germination the sorghum
plant is most susceptible : 252 seedlings sprayed in the earliest stage of
germination, gave 180 smutty plants. " The development of the smut
in the earliest and strongest plants, which reached a height of 8 feet,
was striking. The big panicles were attacked in toto and projected out
of the luxuriant green foliage like black brooms." There can be no
doubt that infection stimulates the growth of the plant. Older seed-
lings yielded less striking results : 150 which were infected when the
embryo was a centimeter long, gave only 24 smutty plants ; 1 90 infected
when the embryo was 1* cm. long gave 12 smutty panicles; 221 infec-

140 The American Naturalist. [February,

ted when the plumule had begun to push through the sheath gave 5
smutty plants; finally, 150 infected when the plumule had pushed
through the sheath about 1 cm., remained entirely free from smut.
Microscopic examinations made a few days after the conidia were
sprayed on the seedlings showed that germtube penetrations were very
common in that experiment which yielded over 70 per cent of smutty
plants, infrequent in those which yielded only a small per cent of
smutty plants, and altogether absent in the plants which remained en-
tirely free from smut. As in oats, the smut was confined exclusively
to the panicle, and the bulk of the infections took place during the
earliest stage of germination, the tissues of the growing seedling very
soon becoming immune.

The results with maize were very surprising since they developed
three wholly unexpected facts, viz.: (1) The germtubes are capa-
ble of penetrating any young rapidly growing part of the plant .
(2) The growth of the fungous hypha winch ha> gained entrance
into the plant is narrowly localized, the sporebeds developing in
situ ; (3) There is no period of rest, the smut beds developing im-
mediately, i. e. within two or three weeks of the date of infection. Pre-
vious to these experiments it was supposed that corn smut entered the
plant when it was a seedling and followed the same law of development
as oat smut. In the first series of experiments, which proceeded upon
this supposition, the smut conidia were sprayed upon 200 seedlings in
the earliest stage of germination ; upon 100 which were a little older ;
upon 100 still further advanced; and, finally, upon 100 when the
plumule was pushing through the sheath. This work was done in the
laboratory and after 14 days the plants were set out in the garden.
Contrary to all expectation, very few penetrations could be found even
by the most careful microscopic examinations, and these were confined
to the root node, none being found upon the sheath, — everywhere over
the surface crept the germtubes without being able to enter. These
plants were under daily observation and after 10 to 14 days a few
lagged behind the rest in growth, and on being pulled up smut pustules
were found on the axis a little above the root node. Of the whole 500
seedlings, only a few became smutty, viz., 4 per cent in the youngest
and 1 to 2 per cent in the older seedlings. In all of them the smut
pustules appeared on exactly the spot where the germtubes had entered
the plant and within three weeks of the date of infection. All the
other plants grew to maturity and remained free from smut. Similar
results were obtained from an experiment in which soaked, ungermin-
ated kernels of corn were planted in a dunged soil which had been

1896.] Vegetable Physiology 141

abundantly infected with smut conidia. Of the 50 plants thus treated
one died at the end of 4 weeks from a smut pustule on the axis, and
the rest developed without any appearance of smut. Another experi-
ment was undertaken with 150 seedlings still further advanced, the
conidia being sprayed upon them, but this also gave negative results.
No germtube penetrations could be found and no smut appeared upon
any of the plants. These results led to a good deal of speculation and
finally to the following experiments : The first of these was with plants
a foot high, having a well developed cornucopia-like summit formed by
the closely wrapped bases of the large outer leaves. One hundred
plants were selected and into these cornucopias a nutrient solution con-
taining smut conidia was injected. They were covered with straw mat-
ting five days to keep off rain and then freely exposed. On the tenth
day, as growth continued and the infected parts were pushed up into
sight, there was a changed appearance. The parts of the leaves touched
by the infectious 6uid were paler than the upper noninfected parte ami
suggested chlorosis. This appearance was visible in different degrees
on all the infected plants? Already there were slight appearances of
pustules and within a day or two they became very distinct, finally
covering the whole infected surface with a smutty crust. Scarcely one
of the male inflorescences escaped and the axis between the leaves was
also smutty in so far as the infective material could reach it. Not one
of the hundred plants escaped infection, the youngest suffering most.
For the next experiment younger plants were selected, i. e. those about
six inches inches high. In many of these the cornucopia was not well
developed and allowed the infectious fluid to run out and waste and
the infection miscarried. All, however, that were large enough to re-
tain the conidia were killed outright by the development of smut pus-
tules, the plants twisting and curving in all sorts of shapes and fre-
quently wilting before the smut spores were mature. The third ex-
periment was with plants li feet high. Here the cornucopias were
wide open and took in large quantities of the infectious fluid, which
penetrated deep into the heart of the plant. After three weeks the
male inflorescences appeared, but in only six plants out of 50 could any
symptoms of smut be found and upon these the pustules were small and
scattering. On the leaves there were wrinkled, white spots which, how-
ever, did not develop into smut pustules but subsequently became green
and nearly normal in appearance. Scattered smut pustules were found
on the axis at the base of the internodes in 7 cases, and the effect of the
fungus was also visible on some of the upper blossoms which remained
white and dried up without developing. Aside from these scattering

!42 The American Naturalist. [February,

symptoms all of the plants remained sound, ripening normal ears. The
fourth experiment, with still larger plants, gave wholly negative
results. The heart of the plant proved immune, and normal ears
developed. In another experiment female inflorescences were infected
as soon as there was any indication of a forming ear, the Nahrlosuug
containing the conidia being injected into the narrow opening between
the ligule and the axis. Smut pustules appeared in great numbers
within 18 days but only on the parts which were actually reached by
the injected fluid. Another experiment was made when the ears were
in blossom. All the kernels became smutty and single ears reached
the size of a child's head. In another experiment varying amounts of
the lower part of the ear were protected from the fungous spray by
wrapping them in blotting paper. In this case only the exposed ker-
nels became smutty, showing again conclusively that the infection is
purely local. The silk though much exposed to the conidial spray
showed not the least trace of injury, having passed out of the meristem-
atic stage. In still another experiment the kernels of the ear were
sprayed with the smut conidia when they were more than } grown.
The result was wholly negative ; no smut appeared. Another experi-
ment showed that the adventive aerial roots can also be infected if
sprayed in an early stage of their growth. In short, any meristematic
part of the maize plant is liable to direct infection and this is made
easy by the fact, which is also Dr. Brefeld's discovery, that the com
smut fungus, unlike that of oats and sorghum, is richly provided with
aerial conidia, which are easily carried or blown from the soil to any
part of the plant. The consequent desirability of keeping the soil of
corn fields free from smut spores, by removing and burning all smut
pustules before they have ripened and shed, must be apparent to all.
The corn smut spores seldom germinate in water, as is well known, and
infection of the plant probably takes place only when the latter have an
opportunity to germinate in the soil and produce the aerial conidia, this
germination in the soil being greatly favored by the presence of dung.
The volume contains VI, 98 pages of text and 5 lithographic plates,
mostly colored.— Erwin F. Smith.

ZOOLOGY.

The Paroccipital of the Squamata and the Affinities of
the Mosasauridae once more. A rejoinder to Professor
E. D. Cope. — I. The paroccipital. — In 1870, Cope1 designated the
occipital externe, Cuvier, paroccipital, Owen with Huxley's name
opisthotic, and homologized it with the squamosal of the Lacertilia and
Ophidia. This opinion is held up in 1894 and in September, 1895,2
but for the name opisthotic the name paroccipital is then used. On
the other side, it is admitted by everybody else that the paroccipital,
Owen (opisthotic, Huxley), which is free in the Testudines, is united
with the exoccipital in the Lacertilia ; the posterior portion of this bone,
which is visible from behind, has been called the paroccipital process ;
in it? anterior portion where it reaches the basioccipital it contain* the
posterior semicircular canals. I have stated in my last note (Am.
Nat., Nov., 1895) that in young Sphenodons the paroccipital is free
from the exoccipital exactly as in the Testudines and that Siebeurock
has proved without question that the outer portion of the exoccipital
of the Lacertilia, which lodges anteriorly the posterior semicircular
canals, represents the same element. The paroccipital process of the
exoccipital in Sphenodon is, of course, identical with the paroccipital
process in the Lacertilia.

To this, Prof. Cope replies : " Baur asserts that the Bocalled parotic
process [I said paroccipital process] of the exoccipital which supports
the quadrate in the Squamata is the same element as that termed opis-
thotic by Huxley. This I deny, and believe that in this it is Baur
and not myself who has fallen into error. Siebenrock, instead of assert-
ing this to be the case, denies it in the following language :f * It is not
the processus paroticus of the pleuroccipital (exoccipital) which is
homologous with the (paroccipital, Owen), opisthothic Huxley, but
the portion anterior to the foramen nervi hypoglossi superius which pro-
tects the organ of hearing.' Siebenrock here uses the names of Owen
and Huxley as refering to the same element, bat he make* the clear

1 Cope, E. I). On the Homologies of the ( )piethotic Bone, Amer. Asso. Adv.
Sc., XIX.

1892. The Osteology of the Laeertilh
May 10, 1892, pp. 185-211.
t Italics are mine.

144 The American Naturalist. [February,

distinction which is the hnp»rtnnt poi„t. heticeen the parotic process of
the e.roenpital and the element irhie/i ronfuins the post, rior semicircular
cunn/.r What then is the element which articulates with the quadrate
in the different orders of the Keptilia?"

The sentence quoted from Siebenrock is misleading. Siebenrock
dot:-* not distinguish between the parotic process of the exoecipital and the
element >rhirh <-ontains -<■ lar canal. He says: not

on I [i the jntrotie process hut tin irhole portion anterior to the foramen is
homologous to the paroccipital. This whole portion, of course, contains
also the parotic process. The sentence of Siebenrock translated by-
Cope is printed at the end of the paper in a resume. A full account
of the conditions is given on p. 209. " Die bisherige Anschauung,
daw am Processus paroticus des Pleuroccipitale (exoccipitale) das
Upisthotieum zti fimlen sei. ist daher absolut unrichtig, sondern der
game rordere Theil des Pleuroeeipitale. u-clche die hintere Partie, des
(jf hares enthiilt. sammt dem Processus paroticus ist als das eigentliche
Paroccipitale aufzufassen.j Vergleicht man dasselbe mit dem bei den
Schildkrdten zeitlebens separirten Paroccipitale, so ergiebt sich schon
aus der Lage und Function die Homologie der beiden Knot-hen.''
And later: "Die gleichen Yerhiiltnisse bestehen bei Hatteria, nur
bleibt bei dersellben das Paroccipitale viel laenger vom Pleuroccipi-
tale (exoccipitale) getrennt, als bei Lacerta."

That Prof. Cop* has not studied Siebenrock's paper is also evident from
the following sentence : " In the Testudinata, and according to Baur, in
Sphenodon, the element which extends externally from the exoecipital
to the quadrate is continuous with the opisthotic, but the semicircular
canal is included in its proximal part only. Here the structure is en-
tirely different from that which characterizes the Squamata, where the
opisthotic does not extend distal of the canal and fuses early with the
exoecipital." It is still more evident from the following words : " In
the Squamata, where the opisthotic is restricted to the region of the
canal and does not reach the quadrate, thissocalled paroccipital is dis-
tinct." Cope thinks the paroccipital -f- otic portion of the paroccipi-
tal or opisthotic in the Testudines is not homologue to the paroccipital
+ otic portion of the paroccipital or opisthotic of the Squamata, and
has the idea that this bone, paroccipital. I >wen, opisthotic, Huxley, oc-
cipitale externe, Cuvier, consists of two elements, the outer one — the
pan-, capital— and the auditory portion, the opisthotic. He admits
that '■ the direct evidence for such a primitive division of this element
(occipital externe, Cuvier ; paroccipital, Owen ; opisthotic, Huxley)

■

1896.] Zoology. 145

in the Testudinata has, however, yet to be produced, and I am entirely
willing to give up the view above defended, should it turn out on fur-
ther investigation to be untenable."

There is no further investigation necessary. The bone in question
is a single element, as is shown, not only by comparative anatomy, but
also by embryology. This element always is free in the Testudines ;
it is free in the young Sphenodon ; and it is uniteJ with the exu.'cipi-
tal in the Squamata. There is not the slightest difficulty in this ques-

One word about the squamosal. The squamosal of the Lacertilia
and Ophidia is connected with the parietals and stands on the quad-
rate, outside of this element we have in the Lacertilia with well devel-
oped postorbital arch another element, which originally is united with
the postorbital and is also connected with the squamosal and quadrate.
This bone is the prosquamosal] In Sphenodon the squamosal and pro-
squamosal are united, but in the Jurassic Saphseosaurus (Sauranodon)
these two elements are free as in the Lacertilia. In the Testudines the
squamosal represents the squamosal of Sphenodon, i. e., the squamosal
-f- prosquamosal of Saphseosaurus and the Lacertilia. Prof. Cope says :
u the squamosal of the Squamata is homologous to the paroccipital
(opisthotic, Huxley, occipital externe, Cuvier) of the Testudines.
This is impossible, since the paroccipital of the Testudines is the
homologue of the paroccipital process of the Lacertilia, which in front
contains, exactly as in the Testudines, the posterior semicircular canals.
In the Mosasauridffi we have the same conditions as in the generalized
Lacertilia. The paroccipital and exoccipital are united; connected
with the quadrate we find two elements— the inner one connected by
its upper branch with the parietal process ; the outer one with the
postorbital. These bones are, of course, homologous to the squamosal
and prosquamosal of the Lacertilia.

II. The Affinities of the Mosasauridce.— Cope maintains, contrary to
my statement, " that in all Lacertilia the exoccipital supports the
quadrate, and that in the Pythonomorpha and the Ophidia the exoc-
cipital does not support it or generally touch it." He also maintains
" that the paroccipital (squamosal, Baur) does support the quadrate in
the Ophidia, while it is only in contact with a very small part of it in
the Lacertilia." I have denied in my last note that in all the Lacer-
tilia the exoccipital supports the quadrate, and I repeat it here.

I have before me disarticulated and complete skulls of Iguana,
Ctenosaura, Amblyrhynchus and Conolophus. In none of these I find
an articular facet on the paroccipital (exoccipital Cope), for the

146 The American Nairn

quadrat?. The paroccipital even does not touch the quadrate, but is
connected by the anterior and upper portion of its distal process with
the inner side of the squamosal ; the face of the distal end of the par-
occipital is entirely free from any connection and is always visible
from the outside. The paroccipital process is placed behind and also
above the upper face of the quadrate for these elements. In none of
the genera mentioned above I find a face on the paroccipital for the
quadrate, but a face for the squamosal. In the Mosasauridse I find
the same. The quadrate is supported by the squamosal and the squa-
mosal is connected by its inner process with the anterior face of the
distal end of the paroccipital ; the prosquamosal takes also part in the
support of the quadrate. We have, therefore, the same conditions as
in the genera mentioned. The statement that the Mosasauridse agree
with the Ophidia in the relations of the quadrate, is absolutely incor-
rect.— G. Baur, University of Chicago.

Explanation of Figures.
Fig. 1. — Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Left quadrate and its rela-
tione v squamosal and paroccipital, from
behind.
Fig. 2. — Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Left quadrate and its rela
tions to the squamosal, prosquamosal and paroccipital, from
outside and little behind.
Fig. 3. — Conolophus .-■uberl.-hitu* Gray. Right quadrate and its rela
tions to the squamosal and prosquamosal. from behind and a
little inside.
Fig. A.— Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Right quadrate and its rela-
tions to the squamosal and prosquamosal, from behind,
q- Quadrate.
ep=Epiphysis of quadrate.

sq=Squamosal (mastoidien, Cuvier ; opisthotic, Cope, 1870 ; paroc-
cipital, Cope, 1892-95).

psq= Prosquamosal (temporal, Cuvier; squamosal Cope, 1870;
supratemporai, Cope, 1892-95). (Baur, G. Anat. Anz. Bd., X, p.
.327.)

p= lateral process of parietals.
po= paroccipital (exoceipital, Cope).
dpo— distal end of paroccipital.

1896.1 Zoology. 147

of Natural History, containing a communication etf Mr. <i. A. Boulen-
ger; " Remarks on the value of certain cranial characters employed by
Prof. Cope for distinguishing Lizards from Snakes." Boulenger shows
also that Cope's statement, in regard to the relations of the squamosum
to the quadrate of the Lacertilia, is quite incorrect.

that I have not yet made clear to Dr. Baur my petition as to this cle-
ment in the Reptilia. The ground for it is paleontologies], :md when
Dr. Baur considers the question from this standpoint, he will probably
find some of his very positive assumptions not proveable at present

In the first place, we agree as to the identity in the Lacertilia. Py-
thonomorpha and Ophidia of the element which he calls Squamosal,
and which I call paroccipital. Whatever be the place of this element
in the Mammalian skull, it has certainly not been proven to be the
squamosal, hence I object to the name which Dr. Banr uses for it, in
which position I agree with various authors. It remains to be seen
whether the term paroccipital, which 1 have hitherto used, be appro-
priate. I must here repeat that at no time since 1871 have I con-
founded it with the opisthotic of Huxley, not even in those cases (as Tes-
tudinata) where I have supposed the two elements to be fused together.
Now the characters of this paroccipital in the Pythonomorpha are
such as to suggest strongly that it represents the dismembered distal
part of the paroccipito-opisthotic of the Testudinata. This character
I pointed out in 1870, and it deserves more attention than it has re-
ceived from Dr. Baur and other authors. It cannot be seen without
taking to pieces the region to which the quadrate is articulated.
When this is done it is found that the paroccipital enters as a cone
between the exoccipital and petrosal, and extends inwards in Mosa-
saurus nearly to the region of the semicircular canals. Nothing like
this is to be found in the Lacertilia. The question now arises, what is
the meaning of this structure ? As the Pythonomorpha is a cretaceous
type, it is evident that it is a survival of some primitive condition, and
not a derivative of the condition found in the later order of Lacertilia;
where the paroccipital is entirely superficial in its connections. On
the contrary, the character of the Lacertilia has been more probably
derived from that of the Pythonomorpha by the loss of the proximal
part of the paroccipital.

In the Testudinata the paroccipito-opisthotic has not been observed,
according to Baur, to consist of two elements distinct at some stage of

148 Tfce American Naturalist [February,

embryonic life. This fact does not, however, preclude the pos-
sibility that such a division may not have existed among the
ancestors of the Testudinata. As this order is very old, these ancestors
can only be looked for in the Permian and Triassic periods. Charac-
ters which belong to early geologic time, are frequently dropped out of
the embryonic record. Now in the Permian Eeptilia, some of which
are the ancestors of the Testudinata, the quadrate is a short element,
and is separated from the exoccipital and the opisthotic by a separate
bone which has been called mastoid and mastotympanic by Owen,3
and which I have considered as part of the " squamosal " in the absence
of suture separating it from that element.* I think that such an ele-
ment exists in the Cotylosauria. The periotic bones in Empedias5
audChilonyx are far removed from the elements which serve as sus-
penses of the quadrate bone, and are distinct from them in Chilonyx
at least. Owen (1. c.) thinks that a paroccipital has been fused with
the exoccipitals in Ptychosiagon (1. c), and in a position which shows
that it could not have been the opisthotic. The homologizing of one
or the other of these elements with the paroccipital of the Pythono-
morpha is too clearly among the possibilities to be negatived by any
evidence to the contrary yet brought forward by Dr. Baur. In fact
the origin of the opisthotic element as an ossification about the posterior
semicircular canal, renders it a priori probable that an osseous body at
a distance from that center, such as the distal part of the paroccipito-
opisthotic bones in the Testudinata, was originally distinct, and for
this element the name paroccipital is appropriate.

2. The Exoccipital and Quadrate.— Dr. Baur again denies that the
exoccipital articulates with the quadrate in certain genera of Iguanidaj
and gives some figures of that region in the Conolophus subcridatus to
sustain his allegation. Unfortunately, though he seems to have taken
the elements apart, as I suggested that he do, he did not put them to-
gether in their original relation when he had them drawn. I now
give two drawings traced from the plate of the skull of the same spe-
cies given by Dr. Stein dachner.6 As these plates represent exactly the
characters which I have observed and described in allied genera,*! re-
gard them as correct. It will be observed that there is a considerable
contact between the exoccipital and the quadrate. There is also con-

3 Proceeds. Geolog. 8oc. London, 1859, p. 50.

* Proceeds. Amer. A&soc. Adv. ScL, 1871, p. 207.

'Proceeds. Amer. Plulos. Soc., 1-S8-",, p. 2M ; l.S'.»5,,,l. VIII, fig. 4, otic region
of Chilonyx. * ' ^

4 Die Schlangen u. Eidech,en der Galapagos Inseln, K. K. Zoolog. Botan.
Geae. Wien, 4to. 1876 ; pi. V.

tact with the supratemporal, and probably with the paroccipital. The
articulation of the quadrat? irith th> txurcipitol i.< universal in th? I<j.
uanidce. I will, however, here call Dr. Baur's attention to the fact
d that the quadrate of the

touch the supratemporal
that the quadrate in the Lacertilia articulate with the exoccipital, and
does not do so in the Ophidia. I will notice later some exceptions to
the rule, of which I have since obtained information. The articula-
tion with the supratemporal (prosquamosal, Baur) is naturally not to
be mentioned in a diagnosis of the order Lacertilia, as there are nu-
merous genera of that suborder in which that element is wantuag.—E.
D. Cope.

Boulanger on the Difference between Lacertilia and
Ophidia ; and on the Apoda.— In a recent note,7 Dr. Boulenger
criticizes my definitions of the above suborders and the Pythonomorpha
as published in a late number of this journal.8 He objects to the
definition which I gave the Lacertilia, viz. : that the quadrate bone
articulates with the exoccipital ; and to that of the Ophidia, which as-
serts that this articulation does not take place. He suggests that I
must have examined very few types of Lacertilia or I would not have
made such a statement, and he mentions two or three other elements
with which the quadrate bone also articulates. Now I must call Dr.
Boulanger's attention to the fact that I nowhere state that the quad-
rate does not touch the other elements he has referred to, but have, on
the contrary, stated that they do so touch. The doctor has apparently
not read my article carefully, or has injected into his reading some-

7 Annals and Magaz., Nat. History, XVI, 1895, p. 367-

150 The American Naturalist. [February,

thing which is not there. What he states io his note that bears on my
definition is, that the quadrate in Chlamydosaurus does not articulate
with the exoccipital, and he gives a figure to substantiate his opinion.
I would have preferred to have seen a figure of this structure with the
quadrate in place, but I have been able to confirm the observation by
the examination of the skull of another Agamid, Phrynocephalus oli-
vierii. Here the quadrate articulates with the paroccipital (supra-
temporal., Boul., squamosal, Baur), and is in contact with the supra-
temporal (squamosal, Boul.), and little or not at all with the exoccipi-
tal. How far the family of the Agamidse generally present this struc-
ture I am unable to say, as but few skeletons of this family are at my dis-
posal. As regards other families I have examined abundant material,
as stated in my last communication (1. c, Nov. p. 1004). In review I
may say that it is self evident that in general the distinction that I
have drawn betweeen Lacertilia and Ophidia in this respect is valid,
(1st) because the supratemporal is frequently absent, and therefore not
diagnostic ; (2d) because the extremity of the paroccipital is insignifi-
cant, and affords insufficient support ; (3d) because the paroccipital
process of the exoccipital is the only remaining element sufficient for
the purpose.

Dr. Boulenger next attacks my definition of the Ophidia, alleging
that the quadrate articulates with the petrosal (prootic) or with that
element and the exoccipital. Here again I am supposed to have stated
that the quadrate does not articulate with the (prootic) petrosal, when
in fact, I did not mention that element. As to articulation with the ex-
occipital, I do not consider that this can be regarded as established until
the embryology and paleontology are looked into. Because an element
cannot be seen in an adult skull, it does not follow that it does not ex-
ist. The paroccipital is present in the Tortricidse, and it is, so far,
only an assumption to suppose that it is not represented in the allied
Uropeltidse, and in the less allied Epanodonta and Catodonta.

The decurvature of the parietals and frontals to the basicranial axis
in snakes has been cited since Muller, by Huxley,9 as peculiar to that
order, and I know of no exceptions so far as regards the parietals.
The optic foramina in some snakes with large eyes are confluent, as I
have long been aware, and this foramen is at the expense of the infe-
rior part of the frontals. This, however, does not produce the charac-
ter of the Lacertilia, and the definition is not invalidated, as Dr. Bou-
lenger alleges ; nor is it by the decurvature of this bone and the pari-
etal iu the Amphisbsenia, where they do not reach the sphenoid. I
9 Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, p. 203.

189.-,.] Zoology. 151

did not " admit," as alleged by Boulenger that these Lacertilia " agree
with the Ophidia," as they do not. Dr. Boulenger asks « what," under
these circumstances, " remains of Prof. Cope's new definition of the
suborders of the Squamata? " From what lias preceded it is evident,
first, that they are not " new " except as to theexoccipital ; and second,
that they remain intact, so far as any evidence to the contrary has
been produced by Dr. Boulenger, except as to the articulation of the
quadrate with the exoccipital in two genera of Agamida\ And it is
not necessary to observe that very few groups so closely allied as the
Lacertilia and Ophidia can be defined without exceptions.

If we now look at the definitions given by Dr. Boulenger in his vol-
umes of catalogues of lizards and of snakes in the British Museum, th.
necessity of something better becomes at once apparent. The Lacer-
tilia are thus defined : " Quadrate bone articulated to the skull : parts
of the ali- and orbitosphenoid regions fibrocartilaginous ; rami of the
mandible united by suture ; temporal region without or with only one
horizontal bar. Anal cleft transverse. Copulatory organs paired.
Gunther."

The definition of the Ophidia (dated 1893) is as follows : " Quadrate
bone articulated to the skull ; brain capsule entirely osseous ; rami of
the mandible articulated by ligament. Anal cleft transverse. Copu-
latory organs present paired. Gunther."

In these definitions the first and last two are identical in both. The
presence or absence of a horizontal bar is not definitive, and indeed no
reference to it is found in the definition of the Ophidia. The only
definitions left are those derived from the mode of union of the sym-
physis mandibuli, and the ossification of the brain case. The former of
these characters is not found in several families of Lacertilia, and the
latter is the one which Dr.Boulenger has repudiated in the note which
gave origin to this reply. I think my attempts at definition do, in
point of precision and application, compare very favorably with those
which seem to have satisfied Dr. Boulenger in the work cited. In
another publication he gives the characters usually employed, which
are much better.

In a recent synopsis of the species of CasciliidaV0 Dr. Boulenger
make3 some observations on the relations of this family to the rest of
the Urodela. He remarks : " If the absence of the limbs and reduc-
tion of the tail were the only characteristic of the group, I should, of
course not hesitate to unite the Cacilians with the Urodeles ; but, to
say nothing of the scales, the Csecilian skull presents features which
are not shared by any of the tailed Batrachians, and the order can be

» Proceeds. Zool. Soc, London, 1895, p. 402.

152 The American Naturalist. [February,

defined by the cranial characters alone. The resemblance of the lar-
val Ichthyophis to Amphiuma is afte i although, as
I believe, the Apoda and Caudata may have evolved from a common
stock, Amphiuma is certainly not the connecting form between the two
as Prof. Cope would have it, for we cannot well assume the scales, lost
in the Urodeles, to have reappeared in the Csecilians."

The above discussion is interesting but troublesome, because it re-
quires a reply. In the first place, it ought not to be necessary to re-
mark that the presence or absence of scales in the Batrachia is not an
ordinal character. On the page following that from which the above
is quoted, Bouleuger states that six of the sixteen genera of Apoda
(Cseciliida?) have no scales. Further, among the extinct Stegocephalia
some genera have scales and some have none, so there is reason to sup-
pose that scales may be secondary as well as primary. Moreover, if a
a genus of salamanders should be discovered which possesses scales, no
one would think of removing it from the Urodela on that account.
There is no improbability in the supposition that such a genus may not
be found in some of the Mesozoic formations. Second, Prof. Cope has
never stated that the genus Amphiuma is the connecting form between
the Apoda and Caudata. He has said that the Amphiumoidea prob-
ably are, and possibly the Amphiuniidie, but the genus Amphiuma
never.1 He has very rarely alleged that any genus is ancestral to
any other genus. There can be no one genus between these two
groups, for there is room for several genera. And one may agree with
Dr. Boulenger that the Apoda and Caudata have had a common an-
cestor, and not disagree with the position that the Apoda belong to the
Caudata, for there is no reason why that common ancestor may not
probably have been one of the Caudata, unless there is more difference
in the cranial characters of the two than has been yet pointed out. — E.
D. Cope.

ENTOMOLOGY.4

Heterocera of the Lesser Antilles. — Reporting on a collection
ofGeometridae and allied families from the islands of Grenada, St. Vin-
cent and the Grenadines, Mr. G. F. Hampson* says. The Geometridre

1 Batrachia of N. America, 1889, pp. 34-222.

5 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, Durham, X. H.

s Ann. and Mag. Kat. Hist., XVI, 329.

,896-] Entomology. 153

are represented by very few species in the Lesser Antilles compared
with the large number that exist in other parts of the Neotropical
Kegion both north and south of the isthmus; andalmostall tbe species
are identical with those found on the mainland.

The Pyralida? are represented by a much greater diversity of species ;
but these, as in other parts of the world, are very wide ranging, most of
the species being also found in Brazil and Venezuela, some being
identical with forms found in the United States, whilst others range
down to Chili ; others again being spread throughout nearly the whole
tropical zone ; whilst, even of the species described as new, several are
represented in the British Museum or other collections by specimens
from continental localities.

Bot Flies of the Horse.— Prof. H. Garman published an
interesting account of the habits of oviposition of Gastrophilus ruuaUi
and (1. e<jui. He enumerates five speciesof bot flies attacking the horse
in America; the a<lult< ma\ lie distinguished by the following key:

1 (6) Discoidal cell closed by a cross vein.

2 (3) Wings marked with brown G. equi.

3 (2) Wings not marked with brown.

4 (5) Anterior basal cell nearly or quite equal to the discoidal cell
in length Q. nasalis.

5 (4) Anterior basal cell markedly shorter than the discoidal cell

\_G. hemorrhoidal;*,

6 (1) Discoidal cell not closed .... G.pecorum.
Concerning the habits and life history of G. equi, the most abundant

species, Professor Garman writes :

This fly buzzes about horses during the hot summer days, occasion-
ally alighting on their bodies, and, when an opportunity offers, placing
its eggs in the hairs on the inside of the knee, on the shoulders, and
sometimes even on the mane. Its mouth-parts are in a rudimentary
condition, and it can not, even if it were disposed to, do any injury to

It is probable that the grubs recently hatched from the eggs of this
fly are taken into the mouths of horses on the lips or tongue. I am
told by a gentleman who has had much experience with horses that he
has on many occasions taken the eggs between the moistened palms of
his hands, and in a few moments felt the young grubs wriggling about.
It appears that moisture accelerates the hatching of the eggs, and it is
just possible that many eggs would never hatch at all if the eggshell

* 7th Rept- Kentucky, Agr. Exp. Station.

154 The American Naturalist [F

was not moistened in some way. Whether this must be from the

; tongue or lips in all cases is a question \

r be considered

not yet settled. Professor H. Osborn, of Iowa, is disposed to believe
that the young do not hatch unless moistened by the horse's tongue ;
that the young grubs generally die in the eggs if left for 35 to 40 days ;
and that they are not commonly ready to hatch until from 10 to 12

Fossil Butterflies.— Fossil butterflies are the greatest of rarities.
They occur only in tertiary deposits, and out of the myriads of objects
that have been exhumed from these beds in Europe and America less
than twenty specimens have been found. The great body of these de-
posits is of course of marine origin, but at least thirty thousand spec-
imens of insects have been recovered from those beds which are not
marine. Over fifty thousand insects from the one small ancient lake
of Florissant, high up in the Colorado Parks have passed through my
hands, yet I have seen from them but eight butterflies. Each of these
belongs to a genus distinct from the others, as is also the case with all
or all but one, of the butterflies found at Radoboj, at Aix, and at Rott
in the European tertiaries. With two (European) exceptions, each re-
presents an extinct genus, and these two exceptions, Eugonia and
Pontia, are genera found to-day both in Europe and America. The
species, however, are all extinct.

One would hardly expect that creatures so delicate as butterflies
could be preserved in a recognizable state in deposits of hardened mud
and clay. Yet not only is this the case, but they are generally pre-
served in such fair condition that the course of the nervures and the
color patterns of the wings can be determined, and even, in one case,
the scales may be studied. As a rule they are so well preserved that
we may feel nearly as confident concerning their affinities with those
now living as if we had pinned specimens to examine; and generally
speaking the older they are the better they are preserved.— S. H. Send-
der in Frail Children of the Air.

Origin of European Butterflies.— Mr. W. H. Bath in discus-
sing4 the effects produced by the glacial period upon the distribution
and diversity of European butterflies says: As the result of his inves-
tigations Ernest Hoffmann asserts that of the 290 species of Rhopalo-
cera inhabiting our continent at the present time, no less than 173 were
originally derived from Siberia. If this was the case, and it seems very

* The Entomologist, XXVIII, 247.

1896.] Entomology. 155

likely to be correct, the majority of them probably immigrated west-
wards of the commencement of the pleistocene periods, for they must
be of great antiquity ; moreover it is unreasonable to suppose that many
of the species could have existed also in the south of Europe, even at
the climax of the glacial period. According to the same authority only
8 species have been derived from Africa, and 39 from Asia south of
Siberia. These must have immigrated into the south European pro-
vince of the palearctic region after the termination of the glacial period
as they belong to genera and types of tropical distribution. At the pre-
sent day they occur in those countries bordering on the Mediterranean
Sea.

The glacial species of butterflies — that is the most ancient forms,
designated by Weismann "the original stirps " — are in many cases
distinguished by their melanic and melauochroic tendencies. We thus
find the forms inhabiting the more northern localities and the higher
elevations on the mountains often of a darker hue, while their repre-
sentatives in more southern latitudes and less elevated altitudes ex-
hibit a brighter coloration.

North American Aphelininae.— As the first of a technical series
of bulletins to be issued by the Division of Entomology of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Mr. L. O. Howard publishes a Revision of
the Aphelininae of North America. Regarding the biology of the
group Mr. Howard writes : The insects of this subfamily are all, so
far as we know, parasitic either upon the Coccidse, Aleyrodidae, or
Aphididae. They are evidently many brooded, and issue from their
hosts indifferently throughout the warmer months of the year, and
through the winter on the insectary. With the Aleyrodidae, Aphididae,
and the Diaspinae among the Coccidse, but one specimen apparently
issues from a single host. Sufficient observations have not been made
upon the early stages of the Aphelininae. Their larvae feed both upon
the body of the scale insect and upon the eggs. They attack both sexes
of the host, issuing when full-grown through circular holes, cut through
the body walls, and, in the case of the Diaspinae through the scale.
With the scale insects of the genus Pulvinaria, the aphelinine larvae
live within the body of the female and not in the waxy egg mass which

News.— A List of Night- flying Moths from Kentiu
by Prof. H. Garman in the 7th Report of the Expei
that State.

156 The American JSaturalid. [Feb

An extended account of the life-history of Phryganidia calif a
Packard is published by Messrs. V. L. Kellogg and T. J. Jack in
Proceedings California Academy of Sciences (Ser. 2, V, 562-570.^

Prof. J. B. Smith issues as Bulletin 111 of the New Jersey Ex
ment Station an account of experiments with " Raupenlime "
" Dendrolene," substances useful for applying to tree trunks to

PSYCHOLOGY.'

American Psychological Association.— The American Psy-
chological Association held its annual meeting this year at the liii-
versity of Pennsylvania, in connection with the meetings of the scien-
tific societies affiliated with the American Society of Naturalist-.
Hitherto the Psychological Association has met independently, but the
feeling has been growing that the close relation between the more re-
cent forms of psychology and the biological sciences made it eminently
suitable and desirable that their representatives should be brought
together. The success which has attended this first step makes it prob-
able that the policy will be continued in future.

No official outline of the proceedings of the Psychological Associa-
ciation is at hand, and any account written from memory will be more
or less defective. Consequently the present writer must beg indulgence
from those wlm>e won is h. endeavors to report if he has, in any ease,
misrepresented them. On the whole, however, he believes he is giving
a fair outline of the more important points.

At the first session, on Friday, Dec 27th, the opening paper, on
" Physiology and Psychology," was read by Prof. George S. Fullerton
of the University of Pennsylvania. Two years ago, at the New York
meeting of the Association, Prof. Fullerton outlined the relation in
which psychology as a natural science stands to metaphysic, and con-
cluded that psychology should adopt, as far as possible, the methods and
assumptions of the other natural sciences, and should relegate the task
of criticising those assumptions to a distiuct science— that of metaphy-
sic. The paper read this year was a continuation of the same general
line of thought in the investigation of the relations of psychology and
physiology. Taking Foster's " Physiology " as a standard, we find,
said Prof. Fullerton, that the author is absolutely unable to give any

> This department is edited by Dr. Win. Romaine Xewbold, University of Penn-

1896.] Psychology. 157

account of the functioning of the higher nervous centres without hav-
ing recourse to sensations, ideas, volitions — in a word, without entering
the field that properly belongs to psychology. While it may be not
only right, but aUo necessary, t'<.r the physiologist to do this, we must
DOt close our eyes to the fact that the mere fact of its necessity proves
the imperfect condition of physiology, and tends to obscure the line
dividing physiology from psychology. Prof. Fullerton claimed that
the methods employed by the two sciences are distinct, and that it is
important to the advancement of knowledge to recognize this distine-

Dr. Livingston Farrand, of Columbia, submitted a scheme of physi-
cal and mental tests which will be used with the students of Colombia
to determine, as far as can be done by direct experiment, their capaci-
ties in both respects at various stages of their college life. After some
discussion, a motion was passed that the President be requested to
appoint a committee of five to report upon the advisability of the uni-
versities represented taking concerted action in the adoption of some

Dr. Arthur Mac Donald, of Washington, D. C, read a paper on
"Some Psycho-Neural Data." He reported experiments somewhat
similar to those of Dr. Farrand, made upon certain groups in the com-
munity, and apparently showing that between definite classes definite
physical and mental differences are experimentally discoverable.

Prof. Lightnev Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, intro-
duced one of his graduate students, Mr. Oliver Cora man, who reported
the results of "An Experimental Investigations of the Processes of
Ideation." Mr. Cornman's method was that of giving a large number
of individuals, usually children, a definite suggestion and requiring
them to write for a definite period of time— usually 15 minutes— all the
thoughts directly or indirectly suggested by it; he had found that in
most of his subjects tne idea trains were, for a short time, largely con-
trolled by the concomitant suggestions of the time and place, and con-
sequently the earlier terms of each series showed a marked similarity.
This soon disappeared, and the further development of the idea trains
seemed dependent upon the character and previous experience of the
individual. We have, therefore, in this, a convenient method of" tap-
pin-,"' as it were, the ideational content of the individual. Mr. Corn-
man pointed out further, that, to get results at all comparable with one
another in the case of different bodies of subjects, the original suggestions
must be given in identically the same words without explanations or
further suggestions on the part of the experimenter, and, to secure this
end, ,h«.uld always be written.

!58 The American Naturalid. [February,

At the afternoon session on Friday, Prof. J. MeK. Cattell, of Colum-
bia, read his President's Address. It was, on the whole, a defense of
that experimental method of which he is the leading representative in
this country, and was, therefore, in a way, a reply to the rather un-
favorable estimate of the method and its results which had been ex-
pressed by Prof. James of Harvard in his President's Address of the
preceding year. The burden of Prof. Cattell's argument was found in
the statement, that every science is either genetic or quantitative in its
method ; that those sciences which have been predominently quantita-
tive will undoubtedly, in time, be formulated in genetic terms, that,
conversely, into the genetic sciences also, such as biology and psychol-
ogy, the quantitative method will ultimately be introduced. This is
the aim of experimental psychology in the narrower sense. While ex-
pressing the strongest conviction of the importance of this experimental
method to the science of psychology, Prof. Cattell displayed such mod-
eration in his estimate of the results thus far achieved by it, and such
sympathetic insight into the aims and relative values of other methods,
that his address was received with the warmest applause by all, and no
one could be found to pass a criticism upon it.

Prof. Chas. A. Strong, of the University of Chicago, read a paper on
"Consciousness and Time," of which, on account of its exceedingly
abstract character, I could not venture to give an analysis from
memory.

The morning of Saturday, December 28th, was occupied by a dis-

Prof. William James, of Harvard, opened the discussion by outlining
the general features of the problem at issue: First, whether conscious-
ness is coextensive with the universe or originated in time ; second,
whether consciousness is an active force capable of controlling brain
movement, or whether it is a mere epiphenomenon, produced by the
brain but not capable of affecting the brain ; third, whether conscious-
ness has been a factor in the production of adaptation.

Prof. Cope, of the University of Pennsylvania, who had been es-
jtecially requested to take the leading part in the discussion, attacked
the question from the point of view of the paleontologist. He held that
natural selection is not sufficient to account for adaptation, that the
adaptation of the individual organ is the result of use, and that the
effects of use can be inherited. In supporting this position he gave many
illustrations, based upon his personal observation. He held further
that organic evolution involved combinations and recombinations of
matter which not only never could have been produced by the opera-

1896.] Psychology. 159

tion of known physical and chemical forces, but were of a character
precisely the opposite of their known effects. To account for this, he
thought we must assume in organic matter the existence of an activity
distinct from all the other activities of nature. Progressive evolution is
the chief outcome of this activity, and therefore he had proposed to
term it an anagenetic, or upbuilding activity, a> .>pp(>sed to the kata-
genetic or destructive activities of physics and chemistry. This ana-
genetic activity Prof. Cope was inclined to believe due to the presence of

factor in the individual and in evolution.

Prof. Cope was followed by Prof. J. Mark Baldwin, of Princeton,
who commented upon several points of Prof. Cope's argument, drawing
special attention to the fact that recent investigation iuto the effect on
young children of their surroundings makes it more easy to account
for adaptation without reference to inheritance of acquired aptitudes.
He also deplored the sharp antithesis between the doctrine of conscious-
ness as a cause and as a epi phenomenon, holding that both views found
their reconciliation in monism.

Prof. C. Sedgwick Miuot,of Harvard, attacked the neo-Lamarckian
doctrine from the neo- Darwinian point of view, supporting his position
by evidence drawn from his own work in embryology. He suggested,
as a speculation, that consciousness, although not itself a force, might
be conceived to possess the property of selecting out of the brain forces
that one which it is control conduct.

Prof. G. 8. Ladd, of Yale, welcomed Prof. Cope's address as an im-
portant contribution from the purely scientific point of view to the
support of doctrines held by himself in common with many other meta-
physicians, and made a plea for the recognition of the metaphysician
on the part of scientists as a coworker in the field of knowledge.

Prof. Fullertou, of the University, called attention to our actual
ignorance on all these points, and expressed the opinion that funda-
mental differences exist which cannot be glossed over by such vague

Other speakers were : Prof. J. H. Hyslop, of Columbia ; Dr. D. 8.
Miller, of Bryn Mawr, and Dr. Wesley Mills, of McGill University,
Montreal.

Prof. Cope then concluded the discussion by adducing a series of
arguments in favor of the inheritance of acquired attributes, any one of
which, he held, would be sufficient to set the matter at rest.

At the afternoon session, Prof G.T. W. Patrick, of the University of
Iowa, reported an experiment on the effects of loss of sleep. A patient

160 The American Naturalist. [February,

had been kept awake for 90 consecutive hours, during which time
careful experimental tests were made of his physical and mental con-
dition, and the results were reported in detail. Among the more in-
teresting of these results were, continuous increase in weight, relatively
s i i lt 1 1 1 loss of muscular strength, the production of visual hallucinations,
and the sudden disappearance of all symptoms after only 101 hours of
sleep — about 25 per cent, of that which had been lost.

Prof. Wesley Mills, of Mel lill University, Montreal, announced his
intention of contributing at the next meeting "f the Association further
researches on the psychic development of young animals and its phy-
sical correlations.

Prof Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, read a
paper on " Variations in the Patellar Reflex as an Aid in Mental
Analysis. Dr. Witmer described the apparatus aud the method used
to determine, 1st, The extent of the normal jerk ; 2d, the increment
duo to the synergic activity of the cortical processes concerned in sen-
sation, thoughts, etc. His results he regarded as tentative only; they
appeared, however, to show (1) that sensation or thought processes
which did not directly tend to produce movement had little effect upon
the knee jerk ; (2) that all processes which tended to produce muscu-
lo! contraction in any part of the body tended to increase the knee jerk ;
i 3) that this increase was quite as marked in the case of the thought of
a movement as in that of the movement itself.

Prof, dames H. Hvslop, of Columbia, reported a series of experi-
ments on hallucinations induced by a crystal. He did not attempt to

cases the phantasms po.-^ibu indicated some unknown method of ac-
quiring information.

Prof. W. it. New boh! narrated infocnia i\ three cases vaguely de-
scribed as - Dream Reasoning,'* which had occurred in the experience
of two of his colleagues. Dr. W. A. Lamberton, Professor of Greek
in the University of Pennsylvania, when a young man, after giving up
as insolable :h he had been

working for weeks by the analytical method, awoke one morning
several days later to find an hallucinatory figure projected upon a
blackboard in his room with all the lines necessary to a geometrical
solution of the problem clearly drawn. He has never had any other
visual hallucination. Dr. H. V. Hilprecht, Professor of Assyriology
in the University of Pennsylvania, some years ago dreamed an inter-
pretation of the name v Iia< since been univer-

sally adopted. At a later period he dreamed that an Assyrian priest

gave him information about some inscribed fragments that had puzzled
him which was afterwards confirmed in all points now capable of con-
firmation. Dr. Newbold offered a psychological explanation of these

Prof. G. 8. Fullerton, of the University of Pennsylvania, was elected
President, and Dr. Livingston Farraud, of Columbia, Secretary, for

Among the members present, besides those already mentioned, were
Mr. Henry Rutgers Marshall, of New York ; Prof. N. S. Gardiner, of
Smith College ; Dr. H. C. Warren, of Princeton ; Prof. E. 8. Sanford,
of Clarke University; Prof. E. H. Griffen, of Johns Hopkins; Prof.
J. C. Creighton, of Cornell ; Prof. James Seth, of Brown, and Dr.
Warner Kite, of Williams' College.— W. R. N.

The Cat's Funeral.— Every one has observed instances of affec-
tion between those proverbially hostile animals, the dog and the cat,
but a case cited by l'Eleveur merits especial attention. A dog and a
cat belonging to the same master were the best friends in the world,
and spent their time in frolicking together. One day, while playing as
usual, the cat died suddenly, falling at the dog's feet. The latter, at
first, did ii ■! ■ ; t-d. but continued his play, pull-

in l'. pushing and caressing his companion, but with evident astonish-
ment at her inertness. After some time he appeared to understand the
situation, and his grief found vent in prolonged howls. Presently he
was seized with the idea of burying the cat. He pulled her into the
garden, where he soon dug a hole with his paws, and put in it the body
of his former companion. He then refilled the hole with dirt, and,
stretching himself out on the grave, resumed his mournful howling.
The idea of burying the dead cat was extraordinary. Whence came
the thought? Could it be imitation, or, which is a better explanation,
did the dog have a vague idea of concealing the event which might
possibly be imputed to him. But then it would seem unreasonable for
him to call attention to the fact, by installing himself on the grave
and howling. However, even human criminals are sometimes equally
inconsistent. It is difficult to form an exact idea of what gave rise to
the dog's conduct in this case. (Revue Scientific Juillet, 1895).— E.
D.C.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences.— The 11th of
December. — The following papers were read : On the temperature of
the crust of the earth at great depths. By Messrs. Alexander Agassiz
and P. C. F. West. Palestine in the fifteenth century B. C. according
to recent discoveries. By Professor Crawford H. Troy.

Boston Society of Natural History.— December 4th.— The
following paper was read : Mr. L. S. Griswold, "The San Francisco
Mountains and the Grand Canyon."

December 18th.— The following paper was read . Prof. G. Frederick
Wright, " The present status of glacial man in America." The subject
of Professor Wright's paper was discussed by Prof. F. W. Putman,
Prof. H. W. Haynes, and others.

January 1st, 1896.— The following papers were read: Mr. A. W.
Grabau, " Lake Bouve, a glacial lake in the Boston Basin ; " Prof. W.
O. Crosby, " Glacial lakes in the valleys of the Neponset and Charles
Rivers; and the Post-tertiary history of the Nashua Valley. — Samuel
Henshaw, Secretary.

January 15th. — The following paper was read : Mr. William
Brewster, Notes on the Natural History of Trinidad. Stereopticon
views were shown. — Samuel Henshaw, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences, Section of Biology.— Dec-
ember 9, 1895.— The following papers were presented : Prof. C. L.
Bristol, " The Classification of Nephelis in the United States." The
study of abundant materia], collected from Maine to South Dakota,
has shown that the color characters cannot be depended upon for
specific determination. An examination of the metameral relations of
this leech indicate that not more than a single species occurs in this
country. Prof. F. H. Osborn, " Titanotheres of the American Museum
of Natural History." The complete skeleton of Titanotherinm robus-
tum is remarkable in possessing but twenty dorso-lumbar vertebras, a
number identical with that typical of the Artiodactyla, but entirely
unique among Perissodactyla. It is now appears probable that the
development of horns in the Titanotheres became a purely sexual char-
acter, and that the genera Titanops, Marsh and Brontops, Marsh, are
founded respectively upon male and female individuals of Titanotherivm
robuMum. Dr. J. L. Wortman, " The expedition of 1895 of the Amer-

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 163

ican Museum of Natural History." The Expedition passed into the
Uinta beds of N. E. Utah, then between the Eastern escarpment of the
Uinta range and the Green River into the Washakie Beds of S. W.
Wyoming, the most important result geologically being that the Brown
Park deposit is found to be of much later age then the Uinta.—
Bashford Dean, Recording Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.— The following communica-
tions were read : " The Use of Photography for the Detection of Differ-
ences in Chemical Composition, in Age, and in Fluidity of Inks,"
Prof. S. P. Sharpies. " Some Observations on the Forgery of a Mark,"
and " Detection of a Forgery in the Fraudulent Use of a Signature
Stamp," Dr. Persifor Frazer.

Academy of Natural Sciences.— Philadelphia, December 31st.
—The following officers were elected : President, Samuel G. Dixon,
M. D. ; Vice-Presidents, Thomas Meeban, Rev. Henry C. McCook, D.
D. ; Recording Secretary, Edward J. Nolan, M. D. ; Corresponding
Secretary, Benjamin Sharp, M. D. ; Treasurer, George Vaux, Jr.;
Librarian, Edward J. Nolan, M. D. ; Curators, Henry A. Pilsbry,
Henry C. Chapman, M. D., Arthur Erwin Brown, Samuel G. Dixon,
M. D. ; Councillors to Serve Three Years, Uselma C. Smith, William
Sellers, Charles E. Smith, John Cadwalader ; Finance Committee,
.Charles Morris, Chas. E. Smith, Uselma < '. Smith. William Sellers,
Charles P. Perot ; Council, Isaac J. Wistar.

The American Morphological Society held its annual meeting
at the University of Pennsylvania, Dec. 26, 27, and 28, 1895. The
stated business of the first session was the Report of the Committee of
Affiliation with the American Society of Naturalists. After consider-
ing this report the Society voted against affiliation. The following
were elected to membership: C. J. Herrick, Denison University,
Granville, Ohio; E. G. Conklin, University of Pennsylvania, Phila-
delphia, Pa. ; F. R. Lillie, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. ;
F. C. Kenyon, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.; T. H. Mont-
gomery, Jr., West Chester, Penna. ; J. L. Kellogg, Olivet College,
Olivet,* Mich. ; J. I. Peck, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. ; and
A. D. Meade, Providence, R. I.

At the second session, December 27, the following papers were read
and discussed : " Panplasm," by Prof. C. S. Minot ; " The History of
the Centrosome in Thalassema," by Mr. B. B. Griffin ; " The Centro-
some in its Relation to Fixing and Staining Agents," by Prof. E. B.
Wilson ; The Production of Artificial Archoplasmic Centers," by Prof.

164 The American Naturalist. [February,

T. H. Morgan ; " Cell Size and Body Size," by Prof. E. G. Conklin ;
" The Development of Isolated Bastomeres of the Egg of Amphioxus,"
by Prof. T. H. Morgan ; and " On the Smallest Part" of Stentor Cap-
able of Regeneration," by F. R. Lillie (read by the Secretary). The
following officers were elected for the ensuing year : President, Prof E.
L. Mark, Harvard University ; Vice-President, Prof. H. F. Osborn,
Columbia College; Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. G. H. Parker, Har-
vard University. Members of the Executive Committee elected from
the Society ut huge. Prof. K. < i. Conkliu, University of Pennsylvania.
and Prof. W. Patten, Dartmouth College.

At the third session, December 28, the following papers were read
and discussed : " Gastrulation ofTeleosts," by Dr. Bashford Dean ;
" Pigment Changes in the Eye of Palamionetes," by Dr. G. H. Parker "
"Reaction of Metridium to Food and other Substances," by Dr. G. H.
Parker; "Some Points in the Anatomy of A uoplocephaline Cestodes,"
by Dr. C. W. Stiles; and " Development of Cassiopea from Buds," by
Dr. R. P. Bigelow. Aftei passing resolutions of thauks to the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, the American Philosophical, Society, and
the Philadelphia Loral < 'oinmittee, tie' Society adjourned .une die.

The American Society of Naturalists—Met in the Hall of
Department of Arts and Sciences of the University of Pennsylvania, on
Thursday December 26th and Friday, December 27th, 189-3. Thurs-
day Dee. 26th, 2 P. M. I. Reports of Committees. II. Special Reports.
III. Recommeudation of new members. IV. Address by the President,
E. D. Cope. " The Formulation of the Natural Sciences." V. Special
Papers, Prof. B. Wilder on the teaching of Comparative Anatomy.
8 P. M. Illustrated Lecture at the Hall of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, by Professor W. \\, Scott, of Princeton University, on "The
American Tertiary Lakes and their Mammalian Faunas." 9 P. M.
lieeeption to all the Societies given by Professor Horace Jayne, at hi>
house on the S. E. corner of 19th and Chestnut Streets. Friday, Dec-
ember 27th, 9 A. M. The following new members were elected : Profes-
sor C. L. Bristol, Dr. F. C. Kenyon, Dr. W. E. Rotzell,L.O. Howard,
Professor John Dewey, G. H. Girtz, Dr. A. I). Mead, Professor G. S.
Fullerton, Professor J. McK. Cattell, Professor G. T. Ladd, Reid
Hunt, Professor William James, Dr. F. Baker, Dr. G. E. Stone, Profes-
sor J. M. Baldwin, Dr. T. S. Palmer, George Lefever,

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : President,
Prof. Wm. B. Scott, of Princeton College ; Vice-Presidents, Prof. Wm.
G. Farlow, of Harvard; Prof. C. O. Whitman, of Chicago University;
Dr. Theodore (iill, of the Smithsonian Institution; Secretary, Dr. H.

189*5.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 165

C. Bumpus, of Brown University ; Treasurer, Prof. John B. Smith, of
New Brunswick, N. J. ; Executive Committee, Prof. Horace Jayne. of
Philadelphia, and Prof. Win. F. Ganong, of Smith College, Mass.

The following committees were apppointed: On Vivisection: Drs.
Patton, Sedgwick and Stiles. On the American tahle at the Naples
Zoological Station ; Drs. Conn and Stiles. On Antarctic exploration :
Professors Heilprin, Osborn and Goodale. The Society elected Prof.
E. D. Cope as its representative on the committee to consult with the
American member of the committee of the International Congress of
Zoologists on Nomenclature. 10 .4. M. Discussion. Subject : The
Origin and Relations of the Floras and Faunas of the Antarctic and
Adjacent Regions. Geology. Prof. Angelo Heilprin, Philadelphia
Academy Natural Sciences. Paleontology. Prof. W. B. Scott, Prince-
ton University. 2 P. M. Continuation of the Discussion. Botany.
Prof. N. L. Britton, Columbia College. Zoology. Vertebrata, Dr.
Theo. Gill, Smithsonian Institution. 7.30 P. M. Annual Dinner of the
Affiliated Societies at the Lafayette Hotel, north-west corner of Broad
and Sansom streets.

Association of American Anatomists.— This body met -in
Philadelphia, on Dec. 27th and 28th, at the University of Pennsylva-
nia.— Friday Morning, December 27th, 8.30 o'clock. — Meeting of
Executive Committee. 9.30 o'clock. — Opening of the session by the
President. Report of Secretary and Treasurer. Report of Executive
Committee. Report of Delegate to Congress of American Physician*
and Surgeons. Report of Committee on Anatomical Nomenclature.
Report of Committee on Anatomical Material. Report of Committee
on Circular concerning Anatomical Peculiarities of the Negro. Report
of Dr. Allen, of the Smithsonian Committee on the Table at Naples.
Election of members. Other new business. Reading of Papers and
Discussions. — 1. "Myology of the Extremities of Lemur bruneus '*
illustrated by drawings and casts of muscles. Dr. George S. Hunting-
ton, N. Y. City; 2. "History of the Ciliary Muscle," Dr. Frank
Baker, Washington, D. C; 3. "Absence of Fibrous Pericardium
of left side." Illustrated by specimen, Dr. Addinell Hewson, Phila-
delphia, Pa. "The Descriptive Anatomy of the Human Heart,"
Dr. Wm. Keiller, Galveston, Texas. Friday Afternoon, 2.30 oclock.
—Miscellaneous business. Reading of Papers and Discussions.— 5.
- Nomenclature of Nerve Cells," Dr. Frank Baker, Washington, D.
C; 6. "The Cerebral Fissures of two Philosophers." Illustrated by
specimens and photographs, Dr. B. G. Wilder, Ithaca, N. Y. ; 7.
"The Human Paroccipital Fissure. Should it be recognized and
so Designated." Illustrated by specimens and photographs, Dr.

166 The American Naturalist [February

Wilder; 8. "Practical Histology for large classes" Dr. Chas. S.
Minot, Boston, Mass. In the evening a subscription dinner was
given by the members of the affiliated societies at the Hotel Lafayette.
Saturday Morning, December 28th. — Miscellaneous business of minor
importance was transacted and these officers elected : Dr. Frank Baker,
of Washington, D. C, President; Dr. B. G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.,
First Vice-President ; Dr. F. J. Shepherd, of Montreal, Canada, Second
Vice-President; Dr. D. S. Lamb, of Washington, D. C, Secretary and
Treasurer ; Delegate to Congress of American Physicians and Sur-
geons, Dr. Addinnell Hewson, Philadelphia; Alternate, Dr. D. K.
Shute, of Washington, D. C. Reading of Papers and Discussions —
9. " Some novel methods of description of the human skull " Dr. Har-
rison Allen, Philadelphia, Pa.; 10. "Type forms and nomenclature
of mammalian teeth." Illustrated by models and diagrams, Prof.
Henry F. Osborn, New York City; 11. "The work of the German
Anatomical Society in Nomenclature," Dr. Charles Heitmann, New
York City. Sunday Afternoon, 2.30 o'clock.— Miscellaneous business.
Reading of Papers and Discussions ; 12. "Fossa capitis femor is with
observations on the trochanteric fossa." Illustrated by specimens, Dr.
F. J. Brockway, New York City ; 13. " Note on the appearance of a
unilateral tuberosity in place of the trochanteric fossa." Illustrated
by specimen, Dr. D. S. Lamb, Washington, D. C.

The American Physiological Society. — The eighth Annual
Meeting of the American Physiological Society was held in Philadel-
phia on December 27th and 28th, 1895. The meeting was preceded
by the usual smoke talk upon the evening of December 26th. Three of
the four formal sessions of the Society were held at the University of
Pennsylvania, the fourth at the Jefferson Medical College, The fol-
lowing communications were presented and discussed :

R. H. Chittenden, The mucin of the white fibrous connective tissue ;
A. R. Cushny, The distribution of iron in the Invertebrates; J.J.
Abel, A preliminary account of the chemical properties of the pigment
of the negro's skin (with W. S. Davis) ; T. B. Aldrich, On the Chemi-
cal and physiological properties of the fluid secreted by the anal glands
■ i Mephitis in* pliiiicii ; G. Lusk, Phloridzin diabetes and the maximum
of sugar from proteid ; W. T. Porter, Further researches on the coron-
ary arteries ; G. N. Stewart, Note on the quantity of blood in the lesser
circulation ; C. F. Hodge, Histological characters of lymph as distin-
guished from protoplasm ; C. F. Hodge (for J. R. Slouaker), Demon-
stration of the comparative anatomy of the fovea centralis; G. C.
Huber, The ending of the chorda tympani in the sublingual and the

1396.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies 167

submaxillary glands (with demonstrations); G. W. Fitz, A working
model of the eye; J. G. Curtis, A method of recording muscle curves;
G. N. Stewart, Demonstration : Measurement of the circulation time of
the retina; T. W. Mills, Cortical cerebral localization in certain ani-
mals ; W. T. Porter, A new method for the study of the intracardiac
pressure curve ; S. J. Meltzer, On the mode of absorption from the
peritoneal cavity in rabbits, (with I. Adler) ; S. J. Meltzer, On the in-
correctness of the often quoted experiments of Starling and Tubby with
reference to the mode of absorption from the peritoneal cavity in dogs;
F. S. Locke, Of the action of ether on contracture and of positive
kathodic polarisation of voluntary muscle; H. G. Beyer, On the in-
fluence of exercise on growth ; W. H. Howell (for Messrs. Conant and
Clark), The existence of a separate inhibitory and accelerator nerve to
the crab's heart ; Fr. Pfaff, On Toxicodendral and on the socalled tax-
icodendric acid; H. C. Chapman, Methods of teaching physiology.

The following persons were elected to membership in the Society :

J. G. Adams, Professor of Pathology, McGill University ; T. B. Al-
drich, Instructor in Physiological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity ; J. M. K. Cattell, Professor of Experimental Psychology, Colum-
bia College ; G. P. Clark, Professor of Physiology, Syracuse University ;
R. H. Cunningham, Assistant Demonstrator of Physiology, Columbia
College ; G. W. Fitz, Assistant Professor of Physiology and Hygiene,
Harvard University ; T. Hough, Assistant Professor of Physiology,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; R. Hunt, Fellow in Physiology,
Johns Hopkins University ; F. S. Locke, Instructor in Physiology,
Harvard Medical School.

Professors C. S. Minot and C. F. Hodge were appointed to express
to Professor Langley the opinion of the Society that it is highly desir-
able that the table of the Smithsonian Institution at the zoological sta-
tion of Naples be continued. Mr. W. B. Saunders entertained the
members of the Society at luncheon at the Art Club. The courtesies
that were extended to the affiliated societies by the University of Penn-
sylvania and the Philadelphia Local Committee were also enjoyed.
Officers for the year 1895-96 were elected as follows:

Members of the Council : H. P. Bowditch, R. H. Chittenden, W. H.
Howell, F. S. Lee, J. W. Warren ; President, R. H. Chittenden ; Sec-
retary and Treasurer, F. S. Lee.

The President and the Secretary were appointed respectively delegate
and alternate to the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons of
1897. — Frederic S. Lee, Secretary.

168 The American Naturalist. [February,

The Geological Society of America held its eighth Annual
Meeting, and the fifteenth meeting of the Society in the Geological
Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, December 26th to 28th.
The number of Fellows in attendance was sixty. The first session was
convened at 2 o'clock on Thursday afternoon with President N. S.
-hale, in the chair. The report of the Council, consisting of the de-
tailed reports of the officers for the year 1895, was submitted in print.
This report showed a properous condition of the Society ; following are
some of the items: membership 226, libraries subscribing for the bul-
letin 59, receipts during the year from the sale of the bulletin 8461.50,
number of exchanges 85. The library is deposited with the Case
Library at Cleveland. Besides printing six volumes of the bulletin,
$3000 has been invested as a publication fund.

Announcement was made of the election by transmitted ballots of
officers for 1896 as follows :

President, Joseph LeConte; First Vice-President, C. H. Hitchcock ;
Second Vice-President, Edward Orton ; Secretary H. L. Fairchild ;
Treasurer, I. C. White ; Editor, J. Stanley Brown ; Councillors, B. K.'
Emerson, J. M. Safford.

The following Fellows were declared elected : Harry F. Bain, Des
Moines, Iowa ; William K. Brooks, Baltimore, Md. ; Charles R. East-
man, Cambridge, Mass. ; Henry B. Kummel, Trenton, N. J. ; William
II. Norton, Mt. Vernon, Iowa ; Frank B. Taylor, Fort Wayne, Ind. ;
Jay B. Wood worth, Cambridge, Mass.

A memorial of James D. Dana, written by Joseph LeConte, was
read by H. S. Williams. This was not only an appreciative sketch of
Dana's life, but an admirable discussion of the true character of geology
as a science, and of the great influence of Dana in giving geology a

Other short memorials of Henry B. Nason, Albert E. Foote and

A message of regard was voted to J. P. Lesley, who was unable to
attend the meeting on account of illness.

The Society held a morning and an afternoon session on Friday and
a morning session on Saturday. It was announced that the next sum-
mer meeting, to be held in August in connection with the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, would be devoted chiefly

papers read was not as long as at the Baltimore meeting,
im was of excellent quality. Following are the titles of

The list of

18»6-] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 169

George P. Merrill, Disintegration and decomposition of diabase at
Medford, Mass. ; Charles R. Keyes, The geographic relations of the
granites and porphyries in the eastern part of the Ozarks ; J. F. Kemp,
Illustrations of the dynamic metamorphism of anorthosites and related
rocks in the Adirondacks ; N. S. Shaler, The importance of volcanic
dust and pumice in marine deposits ; L. V. Pirsson, A needed term in
petrography ; John J. Stevenson, The Cerrillos coal field of New Mex-
ico; N. S. Shaler, The relations of geologic science to education. ( Pre>-
idential address), ; W. M. Davis, Note on the outline of Cape
Cod; W. M. Davis, Plains of Marine and subaerial denudation;
F. P. Gulliver, Cuspate forelands; M. R. Campbell, Drainage mod-
ifications and their interpretation ; N. H. Darton, Some fine ex-
amples of stream robbing in the Catokill Mountains; Robert Bell,
Proofs of the rising of the land around Hudson Bay ; C. R. Van Hi>e.
Movements of rocks under deformation ; Alfred C. Lane, Possible
depth of mining and boring ; Harry Fielding Reid, Notes on glaciers ;
Frank Leverett, The relation between ice lobes, south from the Wis-
consin driftless area ; Frank Leverett, The loess of western Illinois and
southeastern Iowa ; G. Frederick Wright, High level terraces of the
middle Ohio and its tributaries ; H. L. Fairchild, Four great kame
areas of western New York ; Warren Upham, Preglacial and post-
glacial channels of the Cuyahoga and Rocky Rivers ; C. H. Hitchcock,
Paleozoic terranes in the Connecticut Valley; C. Willard Hayes, The
Devonian formations of the southern Appalachians; N. 11. Darton,
Notes on relations of lower members of costal plain series in South
Carolina ; N. H. Darton, Resume of general stratigraphie relations in
the Atlantic costal plain from New Jersey to South Carolina ; T. C.
Chamberlin, The Natchez formations; Arthur Keith, Some stages of
Appalachian erosion.

The American Psychological Association met at the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia. rYulay and Saturday December 27
and 28, 1895.

Friday, December 27, 10 A. M.— Psychology and Physiology. Pro-
fessor George B. Fullertou ; Description of a Series of Physical and
Mental Tests on the Students of Columbia College, Dr. Livington Far-
rand ; Some Psycho-Neural Data, Dr. Arthur MacDonald ; An Ex-
perimental Investigation of the Processes of Ideation, Mr. Oliver Corn-
man. (Introduced by Professor Lightner Witmer).

2.30 P. M.— Address of the President, Professor J. McKeen Cattell ;
and Time, Professor Charles A. Strong ; Some Conditions
Development, Brother Chrysostom ; A Psychological Interpre-

170 The American Naturalist. [February,

tation of the Rules of Definition in Logic, Professor Alfred H. Lloyd.

Saturday, December 28, 10 A. M. — Discussion on Consciousness and
Evolution, Professors William James, E. D. Cope, J.Mark Baldwin
and G. S. Ladd.

2.30 P. M.—An Experiment on the Effects of Loss of Sleep, Profes-
sor G. T. W. Patrick ; Further Researches on the Psychic Develop-
ment of Young Animals, and its Physical Correlation, Professor Wesley
Mills ; Variations in the Patellar Reflex as an Aid in Mental Analy-
sis, Professor Lightner Witmer ; Experiments on Induced Hallucina-
tions, Professor James H. Hyslop ; A Case of Dream Reasoning, Pro-
fessor W. Romaine Newbold.

Informal communications were made at various times during the

A fuller account of the papers and discussions will be found in our
department of Psychology ; q. v.

Indiana Academy of Science.— The eleventh Annual Meeting
of the Indiana Academy of Science was held at Indianapolis, Decem-
ber 27th and 28th.

The session was of unusual interest and the attendance good. Forty
two new members were elected. This indicates the interest that is
being aroused in the State in scientific lines.

The address of the retiring President, A. W. Butler, of Brookville,
on " Indiana : A Century of Changes in the Aspects of Nature," met with

A poem on the "Naturalist" recited by W. W. Pfrimmer was a
novel, yet enjoyable feature.

The report of the biological Survey of Turkey Lake was another new
feature of the meeting, and attracted much favorable attention.

The following papers were presented :

Unconscious Mental Cerebration, C. E. Newlin ; Human Physiology
in its Relation to Biology, Guido Bell ; A means of preventing Hog
Cholera, D. W. Dennis ; The Hopkins Seaside Laboratory at Pacific
Grove, Cal., B. M. Davis ; Glacial and Eolian Sands of the Iroquois
and Tippecanoe River Valleys, A. H. Purdue ; The recent earthquakes
east of the Rocky Mountains, A. H. Purdue ; Some minor processes of
Erosion, J. T. Scoville ; Kettle Holes at Maxinkuckee, J. T. Scoville ;
Fossils from sewer trenches in the Glacial Drift, Win. M. Whitten ;
Relief map of Arkansas, John F.Newsom ; Notes on the Fauna of the
black shales of Bartholomew and Jackson Counties, V. F. Marsters ;
Botanical Literature of the State Library, John S. Wright ; Micro-
scope slides of vegetable material for use in Determinative work, John

1896.] Proceeding? of Scientific Societies. 171

S. Wright ; Embryology of Hydrastis canadensis, Geo. W. Martin ;
Some determinative factors underlying Plant Variation, Geo. W. Mar-
tin ; Variations in the cleavage of the Fundulus Egg, Geo. W. Martin :
Haemoglobin and its Derivatives, A. J. Bigney ; Effects of heat upon
the Irritability of Muscle, A. J. Bigney ; The evolution of sex in Cy-
matogaster, C. H. Eigenmann ; The circulation of protoplasm in the
manubrium of Chara fragilis, D. W. Dennis ; A new Subterranean
( 'rustacean from Indiana, W. P. Hay ; A peculiar crawfish from south-
ern Indiana, W. P. Hay ; A note on the breeding habits of the cave
salamander, Speterpes maculicaudus, W. P. Hay ; Notes on a collection
of fishes from Dubois County, Indiana, W. J. Moenkhaus ; The geo-
graphical variation of Etheostoma nigrum and E. olmstedi, W. J.
Moenkhaus ; A revision and synonomy of the Parrus group of Union-
idce, with 6 plates, R. Ellsworth Call ;"The fishes of the Missouri River
Basin, B. W. Evermann and J.T. Scoville; Recent investigations con-
cerning the Redfish (Oncorhynchus nerka) at its spawning grounds in
Idaho, B. W. Evermann and J. T. Scoville; Additional notes on
Indiana birds, A. W. Butler ; A mammal new to Indiana, A. W. Butler :
Some beneficial results from the use of Fungicides as a preventive of
Corn Smut, Wm. Stuart ; Ratio of alcohol to yeast in Fermentation,
Katherine E. Golden ; Distribution of Orchidacece in Indiana, Alida
M. Cunnigham ; A new station for Pleodorina, Severance Burrage ;
Additional notes on Animal Parasites collected in the State, A. W.
Bitting ; Report upon certain collections presented to State Biological
Survey, Stanley Coulter; Infection by Bread, Katherine E. Golden;
Certain plants as an index of Soil Character, Stanley Coulter ; Forms
of Xanthium canadense and X. *trumarinm, J. C. Arthur; A new hab-
itat for Qqgtrophilus, A. W. Bitting; Noteworthy Indiana Phanero-
gams, Stanley Coulter.

The following reports relating to the State Biological Survey were

.Second contribution to the knowledge of Indiana Mollusca. K. Ells-
worth Call ; Contributions to the Biological Survey of Wabash County,
Albert B. Ulrey; Report of the Biological Survey, Zoology, C. H.
Eigenmann.

Turkey Lake has been taken as a station for exhaustive study of a
limit of environment and the variation of its inhabitants, and the fol-
lowing reports represent the first seasons work :

First Report of the Biological Station, C. H. Eigenmann ; Some of
the physical features of Turkey Lake, D. C. Ridgley ; Hydrographic
map of Turkey Lake, J. Juday ; Temperatures of Turkey Lake, J. P.

172 The American Naturalist. [February.

Dolan ; Inhabitants ot Turkey Lake in general, C. H. Eigenmann ;
HirutHaea of Turkey Lake, Bessie C. Ridgley ; Rotifera of Turkey
Lake, D. C. Kellicott ; Clodocera of Turkey Lake, E. S. Birge ; Mol-
lusca of Turkey Lake, R. Ellsworth Call; Odonata of Turkey Lake,
D. C. Kellicott ; Fishes and tailed batrachians of Turkey Lake, C. H.
Eigenmann ; Tailless batrachians of Turkey Lake, C.Atkinson ; Snakes
of Turkey Luke, H. G. Reddick ; Turtles of Turkey Lake, C. H.
Eigenmann ; Water birds of Turkey Lake, N. M. Chamberlain ; Flora
of Turkey Lake, O. H. Meincke; Methods of determining Variations,
C. H. Eigenmann ; Variation of Eiheostoma of Turkey and Tippecanoe
Lakes, W. J. Moenkhaus.

The officers for the next year are as follows ;

President, Stanley Coulter of Purdue University ; Vice-President,
Thos. C. Gray of Rose Polytechnic; Secretary, John S. Wright of
Indianapolis ; Assistant Secretary, A. J. Bigney of Moo res Hill Col-
lege ; Treasurer, W. P. Shannon of Greensburg.

A. J. Bignky, Assistant Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washington.— November 30th, the
following communications were read : Edw. L. Greene, Some Funda-
mentals of Nomenclature; Theo. Holm, Contributions to the flora of
the District of Columbia ; David White, The Mode of Development of
Exogenous Structure in Paleozoic Lycopods, a review of Williamson
and Renault.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Notice Concerning the Geological Map of Europe, Pub-
lished Under the Auspices of the International Congress
of Geologists. — At the Third Session of the International Congress
5t8, held in Berlin in 1885, the committee on a geological
map of Europe made a report, in which the following conditions of
publication were announced (Berlin Volume, page LXII) : " The
house of Reimer & Co., undertakes the publication at its own expense
on the sole condition that the international committee guarantee the
sale of 900 copies at 100 francs per copy, and furnishes the sum in
advance.

The subscription price of 100 francs will be augmented to 125 francs

1896.] Scientific News. 173

The committee has divided this guarantee subscription as follows :
Each one of the large countries of Europe (to wit : Great Britain,
France, Spain, Italy, Austro-Hungary, Germany, Scandinavia and
Russia) agrees to take 100 copies. The six small countries (i. e., Bel-
gium, Holland, Denmark, Switzerland, Portugal, Roumania) will di-
vide among them the remaining 100 copies, etc."

In the Fourth Session of the Congress held in London in 1888, the
following note occurs in the report of the proceedings of the committee
on the geological map of Europe (London Volume, p. o9).

"The American committee requested of the Directory to he admitted
as a subscriber to the map of Europe on the same terms as the great
countries of Europe (' sic ') i. e.. for at least one hundred copies and at
the same price."

Dr. Frazer, the Secretary of the American Committee, obtained the
names of American subscribers to the "one hundred copies at the same
price" (100 francs), within a short time of the granting of this request,
and promptly notified the publication committee in Berlin, Messrs.
Beyrich and Hauchecorne, of the fact.

It appears, however, the map is being offered for sale in the German
catalogues at the price mentioned in the Berlin resolution as that ac-
corded to original subscribers.

On this account the undersigned advises the survivors of those who
so patriotically came forward in 1888 to enable the geologists of the
United States to enjoy same privileges as those of the great countries
of Europe, to send through their own agents for the geological map of
Europe, since there would no longer be any advantage in obtaining
them through a single channel.

List of subscribers to the geological map of Europe in the order of
their subscriptions, with number of copies:

Williams College, 1 ; Ohio State Univ., Columbus, 1 : Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, 1 ; University of Virginia, 1 ; Am. Inst, of
Mining Engineers, 1 ; Amherst College, 1 ; Cornell University Library,
1 ; Provincial Museum, Halifax, 1 ; Wesleyan University, Middletown,
Conn., 1; Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., 1 ; Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia, 1 ; Univ. of California, Berkely, Cal., 1 ; Prof.
C. H. Hitchcock, for Dartmouth College, 1 ; Prof. J. S. Newberry
(dead), 1 ; Indiana University, 1 ; Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,
1 ; U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C, 3 ; Rutgers College,
New Brunswick, N. J., 1 ; Yale University Library, 1 ; American
Geographical Society, 1 ; Peter Red path Museum, McGill College,
Montreal, 1 : V . S. Military Academy, West Point, N. Y., 1 ; Prof. G.

J74 The American Naturalist. [February,

A. Konig, 1; N, Y. State Library, Capitol, Albany, 2; Eckley B.
Coxe, Drifton, Pa. (dead), 2 ; University of Nebraska, 1 ; Kansas State
Library, 1 ; B. S. Lyman, 1 ; Johns Hopkins University, 1 ; F. W.
Matthieson, La Salle, 111., 1 ; Lehigh Valley R. R. Co., Philadelphia
1 ; E. V. d'lnvilliers, Philadelphia, 1 ; University of Wisconsin, Mad-
ison, Wis., 1 ; Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 2 ; ' State
Mining Bureau of California, 1 ; Washington University, 1 ; Dr. R. W.
Raymond, 1 ; Franklin Institute, Phila., 1 ; Harvard Co'llege Library^
1 ; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1 ; University of the Citv
of New York, 1 ; Massachusetts Agric. College, Amherst, 1 ; W. S.
Keyes, San Francisco, Cal., 1 ; R. D. Baker, Philadelphia, 2 ; S. F.
Emmons, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., 1 : H. M. Sims,
Shenandoah, Page Co., Va., 1 ; American Museum of Natural History,
N. Y., I ; Prof. Alexander Winchell, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor
(dead), 1 ; H. Huber, Argentine, Kansas, 1 ; Jas. E. Mills, E. Quincy,
Cal., 1 ; Cooper Union, N. Y.,1 ; Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute,
Brooklyn, 1 : Cornell University, N. Y., 1; Joseph D. Potts, Phila-
delphia (dead), 1 ; Prof. J. C. Fales, Danville, Ky., Centre College, 1 ;
T. H. Aldrich, Blocton, Ala., 1 ; Chas. Paine, Pittsburg, 1 ; Colorado'
School of Mines, Golden, Col., 1 ; Western Reserve Univ. (d. E. W.
Morley), Cleveland, Ohio, 1 ; F. Klepotoko, Houghton, Michigan, 1 ;
Thos. Macfarlane, Ottawa, Canada, 1 ; Arkansas Geological Survey,
Little Rock, 1 ; Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio, 1 ; Mercantile Library,
Philadelphia, 1 ; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1 ; Alabama
Geological Survey, University of Alabama, 1 ; E. S. Whelen, Phila-
delphia (dead), 1 ; Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 1 ; Julius Bien,
N. Y., 1 ; W. A. Ingham, 1 ; Dr. Jas. P. Kimball, 109 East 15th St.[
N. Y. City, 1 ; Dr. J. S. Newberry, N. Y., Dec. 29, '87, 1 ; New
Harmony Institution, Ind., 1 ; R. Ellsworth Call, Des Moines, Iowa, 1 •
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, 1 ; Hastings, Jno. B, Ketehum, Alturas Co.,
Idaho, 1 ; Geol. Surv. of Minn., Minneapolis, Minn., 1 ; Lacoe, R. D.,
Pittston, Luzerne Co., Penna., 1 ; Yassar College, Poughkeepsie, K
Y., 1 ; Mt. Holyoke Seminary, South Hadley, Mass., 1 :, Colby Lni-
versity, Waterville, Me., 1 ; Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. History, 1 ; Packer
Collegiate Institution, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1 ; Emmens, Stephen H., Har-
rison, N, Y., 1 ; School of Mines, Rapid City, Dakota Territory. 1 ;
Ohio University, Athens, O., Prof. A. D. Morrill, 1 ; Proctor, John R.^
Franklin, Ky., Aug. 19, '88, 1 ; Rose Polytechnic School, Terre Haute,
Ind., Aug. 19, '88, 1 ; Read, Jas. P.. Calico, San Bernard Co., Aug. 31,
'88, 1 ; Oberlin College, Ohio, Aug. 23, '88, 1 ; Frazer, Persifor, Phila-
delphia, 1 ; Streator Township High School, La Salle Co., 111., R. Wil-

1896]. Scientific News, 175

Kara Brice, Sept. 21, '88,1; State Univ., Athens, Ga., Prof. J. W.
Spencer, Nov. 12, 1888, 1 ; Lowry, Thos., Minneapolis, Minn., Nov. 13,
1888 (N. H. Winchell), Nov. 13, 1.— Total, 100.

Dr. Eugenio Duges died in Morelia, Mex., Jany. 13th. 1895. He
was born in Montpellier, France, but had resided in Mexico since
1865. He was a special student of Coleoptera, and had furnished
students in the United States with many specimens.

Dr. Adolf Gerstacker, Professor of Zoology in the University of
Griefswald, died June 20th, 1895. He was born Aug. 30th, 1828, and
is widest known from his share in the Zoologie of Carus and Gerstacker
and his contributions to Bronns' Thierleben.

Dr. Th. Ebert has been called as Professor of Paleontology to the
Prussian Geological Institute, and Dr. Miiller as Professor of Regional
Geology in the same institute.

Henry John Carter, well known for his researches on Protozoa,
Sponges, etc., died at Rudleigh Salterton, England, May 4th, 1895.

Dr. Win. H. Flower, of the British Museum, has been elected cor-
responding member for anatomy of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Dr. W. I. Nickerson, of the University of Colorado, has been ap-
pointed Instructor in Biology in the University of Evanston, 111.

Prof. A. Sabatier, of Montpellier, has been elected corresponding
member for Zoology of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Dr. F. Schiitt, of Kiel, has been appointed Professor of Botany and
Director of the Botanical Gardens at Griefswald.

Dr. Joseph G. Norwood, the well-known geologist and paleontolo-
gist, died at Columbia, Mo., May 6th, 1895.

Dr. E. Hering, of Prague, becomes Professor of Physiology at Leip-
zig, as successor to the late Prof. Ludwig.

Dr. Rene duBois Raymond is assistant in the experimental division
of the Physiological Institute in Berlin.

Dr. W. A. Setchell, of Yale College, has been appointed Professor of
Botany in the University of California.

Dr. F. Sansoni, Professor of Mineralogy in Pavia, and editor of the
Italian Journal of Mineralogy, is dead.

Mr. Charles D. Aldright has been appointed Instructor in Biology
at the University of Cincinnati.

C. C. Babington, Professor of Botany in the University of Cam-
bridge, died July 22d, aged 86.

176 The American Naturalist. [February,

James Mortimer Adye, an entomologist, died at Bournemouth, Eng-
land, May 30th, 1895, aged 34. *

Dr. Jas. E. Humphrey has been appointed Lecturer in Botany in
Johns Hopkins University.

Dr. A. Kowalevsky has been elected a foreign associate of the Acad-
emy of Sciences of Paris.

Prof. J. G. Agardh has given his magnificent collection of Alga to
the University of Lund.

AFJT ?°0derlein' Professor of Zoology and Geology in Palermo,
died March 28, aged 84.

Dr. Pellegrino Strobel, geologist and Conchologist, died at Parmai
Italy, June 9th, 1895.

Dr. R Hanitsch has gone as Director to the Raffles Museum and
library at Singapore.

The Linnean Society of London has awarded a gold medal to Prof
F. Cohn, ofBreslau.

Dr Gustav von Nordenskiold, ethnographer and crystallographer, of
Stockholm, is dead.

Dr. A. D. Mead has been appointed Instructor in Neurology in
Brown University. hJ

Dr. Reinitzer, of Prag, has been called as Extraordinarius Professor
of Botany to Graz.

Dr. E. SchGbl succeeded Dr. Schiemenz as Librarian of the Naples
Zoological Station.

Prof. E. D. Cope has been elected associate member of the Academy
of Sciences, Arts and Letters of Belgium.

' Dr. R. Bonnet, of Giessen, goes as Professor Ordinarius of Anatomv
to Griefswald. J

Dr. W. Roux, of Innspruck, has gone as Ordinary Professor of Ana-
tomy to Halle.

Dr. Hans Schinz is appointed Ordinary Professor of Botany in
Zurich. J

Julien Deby, of London, microscopist and student of diatoms is
dead.

Dr. F. C. Kenyon has gone to Clark University as Fellow in Biol-
ogy-

Dr. H. Lenk, of Leipzig, has made Extraordinarius of Geology.

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The Constancy of Racteri

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Life Before Fossils. Cka

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY, AND
ITS AIM.

By J. C. Haetzell, Jr., M. S.

From the earliest times the structure of the earth has been
an object of interest to man, not merely on account of the use-
ful materials he obtained from its rocky formation, but also
for the curiosity awakened by strange objects it presented to
his notice. The south and west of Asia, and much of the
country bordering the Mediterranean, were particularly favor-
able for directing attention to geological phenomena. Earth-
quakes were of frequent occurrence, changing the relative
positions of sea and land. Volcanoes were seen in eruption,
adding layers of molten rock to those of sand and mud filled
with the shells of the ocean. The strata in the hills abounded
in evidences of similar collections of vegetable and marine life
far removed from access of the sea.

The structure of the earth, however, received but little at-
tention previous to the 7th century, B. C. The extent of the
surface known was limited, and the changes upon it were not
so rapid as to excite special attention. The ancient Hebrews,
in the time of Solomon (1015 B. C), prosecuted their voyages
13

178 The American Naturalist.

;m,-

through the Straits of Babelmandeb into the Indian Ocean,
bringing home the produce of the tropical regions ; while the
ships sent westward to the Atlantic returned with tin, silver,
lead and other metalic products of Spain and Great Britian.

The earliest idea formed of the earth seems to have been
that it was a flat circular disk, surrounded on all sides by
water, and covered with the heavens as with a canopy, even
philosophers looked upon the earth as a disk swimming upon
the water. Homer (800 B. C.) regarded the earth as a flat cir-
cle surrounded by mysterious waters. The nations that were
upon its border were called Cimmerians, and were supposed to
live in perpetual darkness.

As the ancients slowly gained a knowledge of the country
surrounding their provinces through commercial intercourse,
wars, and the search for knowledge, they were undoubtedly
struck with the differences of the topography and formations.
Thus geology is undoubtedly the outgrowth of geographical
knowledge.

The 7th and 6th centuries B. C. were remarkable for great
advance in the knowledge of the form and extent of the earth.

Their first discoveries were probably made by the Phoeni-
cians. Their investigations were along the shores of the Med-
iterranean, and passing through the. Straits of Gibraltar, they
extended their researches into Spain and Africa and the Can-
aries.

Pythagoras (583 B. C.) observed the phenomena that were
then attending the surface of the earth, and proposed theories
for explaining the changes that had taken place in geological
time. He held that in addition to volcanic action, the changes
in the level of the sea and land were due to the retiring of the
sea.

Aristotle (384 B. C.) recognized the interchange constantly
taking place between land and sea by the action of running
water and of earthquakes, and remarked " how little man can
perceive in the short space of his life of operations extending
through eternity of time."

Geographical knowledge was greatly advanced by the con-
quest of Alexander the Great (356 B. C), in making known

1896.] Principles of Geology audits Aim. 179

Persia, and science was advanced by sending out expeditions
to explore and survey the various provinces he had conquered.
The Greeks he sent out, and also those who accompanied him,
were critical observers and carefully described the products
and aspects of the country, and made collections of all that
was interesting in regard to the organic and inorganic pro-
Ptolemy (323 B. C.) discovered Abyssinia and navigated the
Arabian Sea, and Silineus (306 B. C.) ascended the Ganges to
Batna and extended his expedition to the Indus.

It was the military genius of the Romans which led to the
survey of nearly all Europe, and large tracts of Asia and
Africa. In the height of their power they had surveyed and
explored all the coast of the Mediterranean, Italy, the Balkan
peninsula, Spain, Gaul, West Germany and Britain, and their
practical genius led them to the study of the natural resources
of every province and state brought under their sway.

Eratosthenes (276 B. C.) considered the world to be a sphere
revolving with its surrounding atmosphere on one and
the same axis and having one center. His theories were per-
fected by Hipparchas (160 B. C). He attempted to catalogue
the stars and to fix their relative position, and he applied to
the determining of every point on the surface the same rule he
introduced in the arrangement of the constellation.

Strabo (60 B. C.) noticed the rise and fall of the tide, and
maintained that the land changed its level and not the sea, and
that such changes happened more easily to the land beneath
the sea on account of its humidity.

Ptolemy (150 A. D.) was the first scientific geographer. He
followed the principles of Hipparchas, which had been ne-
glected during the two centuries and a half since his time,
even by Strabo and Pliny. In Ptolemy's work is found for
the first time the mathematical principle of the construction
of maps, as well as several projections of the earth's surface.

After the great achievements of Ptolemy to the 13th cen-
tury, the cultivation of the physical sciences was neglected.
In the 10th century Avicenna, Almar, and other Arabian
writers commented on the works of the Romans, but added
little of their own.

180 The American Naturalist. [March,

From the 13th to the 16th century, astronomy, travels, and
commercial interests occupied the attention of the different
nations, but geology did not appear as a separate science until
in Italy in the 16th century. It began by being a record of
observed facts. This was not enough, however, for it did not
satisfy the demand as to how the phenomena were produced.
High above sea level, and far inland, imbedded in solid rock,
were found fossils. At the outset it was unfortunately linked
to the belief that they were relics of the Noachean deluge.
Some held that they were the result of the formation of a fatty
matter, or of terrestrial exhalations or of the influence of the
heavenly bodies, or that they were merely concreations, or
sports of nature. The abundance of fossils in the strata of the
Apennine range could not fail to arrest attention and excite
inquiries. Leonardo da Vinci (1519) and Fracostaro, whose
attention was engaged by the multitude of curious petrifac-
tions which were brought to light in 1517 on the mountains
of Verona in quarrying rock for repairing the city, had sound
views, and showed the inadequacy of the terrestrial deluge to
collect marine fossils.

Collections were made for museums, that of Canceolarius,
at Verona being the most famous. Descriptive catalogues of
these collections were published.

Only a few held that they were the remains of animals.
Palissy in 1580, was the first who dared to assert in Paris that
fossil remains once belonged to marine animals. The ques-
tion was naturally asked " How came they there? " The re-
sult of investigation showed that the rocks must have accu-
mulated around them, and hence could not always have been
as they were found and that the arrangement must have
changed since they were formed. This brought about the
study of the construction of the earth.

Their chief objects were the examination of the materials
out of which the solid framework of the earth was built, and
the determination of their chemical composition, physical
properties, manner of occurrence, and their characteristics.
Thus they started out with the idea that rocks were made
through secondary causes.

1896.] Principles of Geology, and Us Aim. 181

Steno (1669) observed a succession in the strata, and pro-
posed the theory that there were rocks older than the fossilif-
erous strata in which organic remains occur. He also distin-
guished between marine and fluvialite formations. He also
published his work " De solido intra solidum naturalites con-
tento," in which he proves the identity of the fossil teeth found
in Tuscany with those of living sharks.

Scilla, in 1670, published a treatise on the fossils of Cala-
bria, and maintained the organic nature of fossil shells. But
both Steno and Scilla referred their occurrence to the Noach-
ean deluge.

In England the diluvialists were busy forming idle theories
to give plausibility to their creed, that the Noachean deluge
was the cause of all the past changes on the earth's surface.
Differing somewhat in detail, they all agreed in the notion of
an interior abyss whence the waters rushed, breaking up and
bursting through the crust of the earth, to cover the surface,
and whither, after the deluge, they returned. Such absurd
notions greatly hindered the advance of science.

Leibnitz (1680) proposed the bold theory that the earth was
originally in a molten state from heat, and that the primary
rocks were formed by the cooling of the surface, which also
produced the primeval ocean by condensing the surrounding
vapors. The sedimentary strata, he held, resulted from the
subsiding of the waters that had been put in motion from the
collapse of the crust on the cooling and contracting nucleus.

Burnet (1680) published his " Sacred Theory of the Earth,"
and it received great applause. It was written in ignorance
of the facts of the earth's structure, and was an ingenious specu-
lation. It abounds in sublime and poetical conceptions in
language of extraordinary eloquence. In 1692 he published
a work which treated of the Mosaic Fall as an allegory.

Lister sent to the Royal Society, in 1683, a proposal for
maps of salts and minerals. He was the first to recognize the
arrangement of the earth's materials in strata, continuous over
large areas, and resembling each other in different countries.

Hooke (1688) and Ray (1690), differing as much from Bur-
net as from Leibnitz, considered the essential condition of the

182 The American Naturalist. [March

globe to be one of change, and that the forces now in action
would, if allowed sufficient time, produce changes as great as
those of geological time. Hooke published a " Discourse on
Earthquakes," which contains the most philosophical view of
the time respecting the notions of fossils and the effect of
earthquakes in raising up the bed of the sea. Woodward per-
ceived that the lines of outcrops of the strata were parallel
with the ranges of mountains. He formed, about the year
1695, a collection of specimens which he systematically ar-
ranged and gave to the University of Cambridge.

They were followed in the same direction by Vallismeme
(1720), Moro (1740,) Buffon (1749), Lehman (1756), and Fuch-
sel (1773), each contributing something additional, and ad-
vanced the most philosophical views yet presented respecting
the fossil iferous strata. The first two made observations
throughout Italy and the Alps. Moro endeavored to make
the production of strata correspond in time with the account
of the creation of the world in six days.

Buffon published his " Natural History," in which he ad-
vanced views respecting the formation and modification of
mountains and valleys by the action of water.

Geology did not begin to assume the rank of an important
science until its application to the practical purposes of mining
and agriculture was first pointed out in 1780 by Werner, Prof,
of Mineralogy in the School of Mines at Freiberg in Saxony.
He greatly advanced the science by establishing the super-
position of certain groups, by giving a system and names.
He had very crude ideas regarding the origin of the strata.
He supposed that the various formations were precipitated
over the earth in succession from a chaotic fluid ; even the ig-
neous rocks he held to be chemical precipitations from the

Thus we see that the history of geology has been a record of
failures, and it was not until Hutton (1788), rejecting all the-
ories as to the beginning of the world returned to the opinions
of Pythagoras and Ray. He pointed out that geologists must
study the present if they would learn of the past; and he
labored to show that the forces now in operation are capable

1896.] Principles of Geology, and i

183

of forming rocks and of bringing about the changes that have
occurred on the earth. He held that the strata which now
compose the continents were once beneath the sea, and were
formed out of the waste of preexisting continents by the action
of the same forces which are now destroying even the hardest
rocks. Hutton was the kind of man the science had so long
been in need of, and by his teaching geologists were at last
started on the only path that could possibly lead them to
truth. He drove out at once and forever the imaginary agen-
cies which the early geologists had been so ready to have re-
course to, and laid down the principle that in geological spec-
ulation " no powers are to be employed that are not natural
to the globe, no actions to be admitted of except those of which
we know the principle, and no extraordinary events to be al-
leged in order to explain a common appearance." He occu-
pied himself mainly studying the changes that are now taking
place on the earth's surface, and the means by which they
were brought about, and in demonstrating the fact that the
changes that had happened during the past periods of the
earth's history were of the same kind and due to the same
causes as those now going on.

The determination of the order 6f the strata, and the group-
ing of them in chronological order, were begun by Lehman
(1756) and carried on by Fuchsel (1773), Pallas (1785) and
Werner (1789). Smith made the most important contribution
to this subject when, in 1790, he published his Tabular View
of the British Strata. He showed their superposition and char-
acterized the different groups by their peculiar fossils.
(To be continued.)

The American Naturalist.

THE CONSTANCY OF BACTERIAL SPECIES IN
NORMAL FORE MILK.1

By H. L. Bolley.

It is recognized that aside from actual dirt, as, for example,
drippings from the hands of the milker, dirt from his clothing,
and hairs and manurial particles from the sides of the animal,
that the fore milk constitutes the most productive source of the
bacterial flora of milk. Schultz and others have placed quan-
titative determinations at from fifty to one hundred thousand
per cubic centimeter. As the character of the germ content is
becoming such a matter of importance in economic labors
with milk and its product, it is apparent that a consideration
of the types of germ present in the normal udder should com-
mand early attention of the bacteriologically inclined dairy-
men.

The question is of necessity, one of such breadth that it
must be approached in separate phases, such, as for example,
the study of the presence ftr absence of physiological groups,
constancy of definite species, etc. During the year just closed
two such points have been under investigation. The primary
object, while being a matter of simple interest, had also the
direct aim of determining the relation of normal fore milk to
curd inflation in cheese manufactory. The results of the
work have in part been reported in a paper read before the
General Section of the American Association of Agricultural
Colleges and Experimental Stations, July 19, 1895 ; showing
that, in so far as the investigation had been carried, gas gen-
erating species such as are accountable for " pinhole forma-
tion " or curd inflation are not normal to the fore milk of the
healthy udder.2

1 Read before the Section of Botany of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, Springfield Meeting, August 31, 1895. Also published in
Centralblatt fur Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde, Ah. II, B and I, JSTo. 22-23.

2 Bolley and Hall : Cheese curd inflation : Its relation to the bacterial flora of
fore milk. Centralb. f. Bact. u. Parasiteuk., II, Ab. I, Bd., No. 22-23.

1896.] Bacterial Species in Nonnal Fore Milk. 185

This conclusion was based upon preliminary cheese curd
tests made at Madison, Wisconsin, August, 1894, and duplica-
ted at Fargo in October, and finally upon qualitative analysis
made during a period of three winter months, with ten differ-
ent milch cows under consideration.

The point to be reported upon, at this time, is that of the
constancy of species as found : (a) for the same cow for a given
length of time ; (b) in the same teat of the same cow ; and (c)
as to whether species are common to different cows or not upon

In general, the evidence of the work associated with the last
named report, was to the effect that there is no evidence that
germs are of any certainty common to different animals upon
the same date under like conditions ; but that a certain inhab-
itant of the udder of the same animal may remain quite con-
stant. Thus while only one species, number 30, was observed
to be present in more than two animals of the original ten
animal test upon different dates, several different species were
found to occur at several dates in the same udder.

Commencing July 1st, three animals were placed under cul-
tural investigation, number 24 of which was an animal of the
original ten, also number 21. Cultures were attempted from
each teat upon gelatine and agar, as often as the work could
be handled, the same methods of procuring milk being used
as in the previous work, except in the different tests of the
same animal, the milk tube or trochar, was inserted different
depths. Some sixty of these distinct milkings were taken
upon fifteen different dates, during which time the cows ran
upon a clean pasture during the day, being housed at night.
The milk samples were taken sometimes in the morning and
sometimes at night. In all, thirty-seven different species of bac-
teria were separated ; and, as in past work, were found to be of
various physiological types, gelatine liquifiers, non-liquifiers,
solid curd types, peptonizing forms, acid and alkali curdlers,
etc., including bacilli, micrococci of various forms, and a strep-
tococcus. Thus it may be said that, in general, forms collected
are miscellaneous.

186 . The American Naturalist. [March,

Results : Again, there is no marked evidence that species
are common among different animals, but there is strong evi-
dence of constancy of appearance of certain types when once
present. This, perhaps, is to be expected, for it is hardly pos-
sible that in an ordinary milking all individuals could be
excluded from the milk cistern and lower teat passages.

The following table and annotations may help to show the
bearings of the work :

Teats = No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

I-.x(.r

r. No. 1, July 2nd. Nos. 1
No. 2, July 3rd. 6
No. 3, July 4th. 16

No. 4, July 6th. (Not taken)
No. 5, July 8th. (Lost Cul.)
No. 6, July 10th. 30, 1
No. lo, July 17th .J.V53. J
No. 13, July 23rd. 96, H3. 94
No. 15, July 28th. 1 77, 67

Nos. 1

1

1
17 and 1

(LosO

1
(Not taken)

Nos. 1
9 and 10

20
10, 61

96,97

66, 100 & 67

Nos. 5

5, 100 & 77

(Not taken)

26,27,15,29

-
67,1

Annotation No. 1, a solid curd, lactic acid forming micro-
coccus, is seen to be present upon every date, appearing in teat
No. 2 upon all possible dates save one.

Nos. 5, 10, 15, 61 and 67 occurred twice each, the intervening
days being respectively 2, 8, 7, 4 and 4. It is worthy of note
that with the exception of No. 67, each of these was found each

Cow No. 21

Species present

per teat, by dates.

r^ =

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

Expr. No- 8, July 12th.
Expr. No. 9, July, 15th.
Expr. No. 12, July 16th.

Nos. 45
(Lost)
53, 51, &

56

Nos. 31
31, 50

31, 45

Nos. 27, 31
29, 53

1 (Not taken)

Nos. 20

(Lost)

Bacteria! Species in Normal Fore Milk.

-With this animal it is to be noted that No.
31, a lactic acid forming micrococcus, is constant to all dates,
and upon each date was found present in teat No. 2.

Other germs found twice each were Nos. 45, 53 and 56 ; but
each time in a different teat.

Cow No. 26

Species present, per teat, by dates.

Teats =

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

Expr. No. 7, July 1st.
Expr. No. 17, July 17th.

Expr. No. 14, July 23rd.

33,1

66, 100, 67
17 and 33

33
33, 15

67,33

39, 61, 67
33

17,44,33
53,77

(Lost)

In these three milkings from cow No. 26, the common spe-
cies to each date are seen to be Nos. 33 and 67. Out of eleven
milk samples taken No. 33 occurs in the cultures nine times.
The intervening dates being 16, 6 and 22 days apart. No. 33 is
a streptococcus and in these distant tests, as to time separation,
is a strong argument of constancy of presence being possible to
an individual species. In growth characteristics this germ is
almost a strict anaerobe.

Studying these tables, we find for each animal the following
numbered germs present :

Cow No. 24— Nos. 1, 5, 6, 9, 10, 100, 77, 15, 16, 17, 20, 23,
61, 26, 27,.29, 30, 31, 58, 53, 66, 96, 93, 94, 97, 11 and 67, a total
of twenty-seven distinct forms.

Cow No. 21.— Nos. 45, 31, 27, 20, 50, 29, 53, 55, 56, 57 and 51,
a total of eleven.

Cow No. 26.— Nos. 33, 1, 39, 61, 67, 17, 44, 66, 100, 15, 53 and
77, a total of twelve.

The forms common to three animals equal only one, No. 53,
while those common to two of them are seen to be Nos. 1, 100,
77, 15, 61, 29, 31, 66, 67, 29 and 20 ; eleven constant forms.

General Annotations: — From these summaries it is to be
noted that cow No. 24 from nine different milkings furnished
twenty-seven of the thirty seven germs of the three tests, cow

m

Naturalist.

No. 21 six and cow No. 26 four. The numbered germs from
the last named animals are representative of but three milking
dates each. It is thus a possibility, that further milking dates
for these cows might have given others of those common to
cow No. 24. While this point last named, is probably a cor-
rect consideration, it is nevertheless quite clearly indicated
that the great majority of germs are but incidental in a given
udder or teat to the date, perhaps, to the environments of the
animal. There are, however, certain few germs found which
when once present in a teat or udder, remain with marked pre-
sistence. For this capability, these are found to possess what
are presumably the proper physiological functions or require-
ments, as for example, capability to properly thrive in or with-
stand the normal temperature of the animal's body, and anae-
robic or semi-anaerobic faculties.

As in the case of the paper previously mentioned, this is
given not as final evidence to convince upon the points men-
tioned or suggested, but rather as a record of preliminary work
accomplished.

Again, an interesting fact is the comparatively low number
of species per milk sample. In the first work, winter collect-
ions, the range was from one to four species, in this it is one to
five with a rather high average number. It is also interesting,
though perhaps to be expected.that quantitative determinations
vary from low to high numbers for different milkings, very
much in accord to these last named figures.

North Dakota Experiment Station, Fargo, N. D Auaust 20
1895. • y ' *

LIFE BEFORE FOSSILS.
By Charles Morris.
The beginning of life upon the earth is one of those myste-
ries which, to judge from what we now know about it, seems
likely never to be solved by ascertained facts. There are mod-

1896.] Life Before Fostils. 189

ern facts, indeed, which bear upon it, but few geological ones,
and none of absolute force. If we leave out of the question the
highly problematical " Eozoon Canadense," we find the first
known fossils at a comparatively high level in the rocks ; and
these, instead of being, as the theory of evolution requires, of
very simple organization, are of a degree of development which
indicates a very long period of preceding life existence. This
primeval fauna, indeed, contains representatives of every
branch of animal life except the vertebrate, and these not in
their simplest stage, but already divided into their principal
orders : the Ccelenterate class, for instance, yielding examples
of Actinozoa and Hydrozoa ; the Crustacean, of Trilobites and
Phyllopods ; and the Molluscan, of Gasteropods, Lamellibranchs
and Pteropods.

This is the beginning of life as we know it. It is very far
from the beginning of life as evolution demands, or as the char-
acter of the rock strata indicates. Below the Lower Cambrian
beds, which contain these fossils, lie several miles of stratified
rocks similar in physical character to those above them, and
indicating, as Darwin says, " that during a preceding era as
long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from
the Cambrian age to the present day . . . .the world
swarmed with living creatures."

Evidently we are not yet at the origin of life. We are miles
away from it probably — miles of rock strata, that is. Between
the simplest known microscopic creatures and the much devel-
oped Cambrian fossils an immense gap extends. The gap, for
example, between a diatom and an oyster is one that represents
ages of evolution ; yet it is much less in extent than the yawn-
ing gap which we find dividing the line of primeval life, and
which geologists have sought in vain to fill. Believers in
■evolution — who represent about all living scientists and the
bulk of living thinkers — cannot but stand in some dismay be-
fore this strange circumstance, which must be proved away or
explained away before their theory can be fully substantiated.
Yet proof is not forthcoming, and only attempts at explanation

190 The American Naturalist. [March,

In April, 1885, 1 presented certain views on this subject
before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and
reinforced my arguments by later communications in 1885 and
1886. In 1894 Professor W. K. Brooks, evidently unaware of
the existence of the papers mentioned, advanced a similar hy-
pothesis in the July-August number of the " Journal of
Geology," presenting a number of interesting facts, though
missing, as it seems to me, much the strongest argument in
defence of the hypothesis.

I propose here to repeat my former hypothesis, with addi-
tional arguments and illustrations — for some of the latter of
which I acknowledge indebtedness to Professor Brooks's able
paper.

To begin with, the facts of embryology may be said to point
directly to what was probably the primary condition of life.
The embryos of ocean animals, as a rule, begin life as swim-
ming forms. Even the oyster — a type of sluggishness in
animals — enjoys a brief existence as a swimmer before it ac-
quires a shell and becomes permanently fixed. The same is
the case with the sponge, the coral, and other stationary types,
and with the various creeping or slow moving forms, such as
the echinoderms. Since it has become a settled dogma of
science that each stage of development passed through by the
embryo represents some mature stage in the ancient ancestry
of the animal, the fact stated points almost irresistably to the
conclusion that the far off ancestors of the present stationary
or crawling animals were swimmers — and, for that matter,
naked swimmers', they being as yet destitute of hard skeletal

Yet no swimming stage of existence is indicated by the old-
est known fossils, or at least only by the minute pteropods and
phyllopods, which were, perhaps, secondary derivatives from
crawling ancestors. The trilobite may have had some swim-
ming powers, yet probably made its way only by crawling, and
the other known forms were crawlers or burrowers, or were
immovably fixed. There are traces of jelly fish, it is true, but
these, as they now exist, we know to be derivatives from sta-
tionary forms, and the primeval swimmers indicated by em-
bryology have left no trace of their existence in the rocks.

1896.] ■ Life Before Fossil*. 191

Yet the oceanic waters to-day swarm with swimming life,
and in all probability did so then. This life, as now existing,
contains many high as well as numerous low forms. Then it
must have consisted of low forms only. The wealth of exist-
ing minor sea life, as observed by the unassisted eye and
revealed by the microscope, is simply boundless. Small jelly
fish are met with in vast armies, hundreds of miles in extent,
and descending to many feet in depth. Pteropods, both the
naked and the shelled forms, occur in prodigious multitudes.
The minute copepod crustaceans are found in countless
swarms, and, though consumed in myriads daily by herring
and other fish, by medusae, siphonophora and other inverte-
brates, and even by the whale, they are so productive that
their numbers seem undiminished, being found over .vast areas
of surface and extending through more than a mile in vertical
depth. Below these again are hosts of microscopic larva' and
minute animals, and still lower are countless swarms of proto-
zoa, such as radiolarians, globigerime, etc.

Here, then, are innumerable swarms of swimming and float-
ing forms, in most part carnivorous, but necessarily requiring
a vegetable basis of nutriment, The foundation food supply for
such a mighty host must be enormous in quantity. The visi-
ble plant life of the ocean, the algse which grow on the bottom,
would not sustain a tithe of such an army. The microscope
must again be brought into requisition, and.this useful instru-
ment reveals to us an extraordinary profusion of unicellular
plants — diatoms, coccospheres, trichodesmiums, and a few other
types — which extend from the surface to the lowest level of
light penetration, and are so extraordinarily numerous and
prolific as to supply food for all the oceanic host. These, and
the protozoa which feed upon them, form the basic food sup-
ply for the countless myriads of living forms which compose
the fauna of modern seas.

Yet, were the conditions of the ocean as they exist to-day to
be sought for by some far future geologic delver int^o the myste-
ries of the rocks, almost nothing of this profusion of life would
be revealed, discovery being nearly or entirely confined to
such forms as possess hard skeletons, internal or external, of

192 The American Naturalist. [March,

which most of these forms are destitute. The same was prob-
ably the case with the period which we now have under review,
and of whose life we find few forms except those which habit-
ually dwelt upon the bottom. The ocean may have been as full
of life then as it is to-day, many of the swimmers of that
period, perhaps, representing the ancestral lines out of which
the bottom dwellers had evolved, and which are still in a
measure preserved for us in modern embryos. These primeval
forms may have been even less suitable for fossilization than
their counterparts of to-day. The diatoms, the radiolarians,
and other minute existing forms have silicious shells capable
of preservation. It is quite possible that the early protozoa
and protophytes had no such skeletal parts, and that when
they died all trace of them departed.

How far back, then, from the earliest age of fossils must we
place the actual date of the origin of life ? Ages perhaps —
epochs — a period as remote from the Cambrian in one direct-
ion as we are in the opposite. It may have taken as long, or
longer, to develop the trilobite as it since has taken to develop
man. During the whole of the immensely long period in
which the miles of earlier strata were being deposited, the
ocean may have been the seat of an abundant life of the lowest
type, and this a very slowly evolving one, the conditions being
such that competition and the struggle for existence were not

Of the forms of life now existing, the most abundant and
the lowest in organization known to us are the bacteria or
microbes — omnivorous life specks, feeding alike on animals
and plants, and fairly assignable to neither. Possibly life had
its origin in forms like these, or in still lower stages of protoplas-
mic activity, and from this condition developed, after an inter-
minable period, into the simple oceanic protozoa and proto-
phytes typified by the radiolorians and the diatoms, the lowest
forms having characters common to both animals and plants,
while their descendants divided definitely into plants and
animals.

The period here referred to, and -that subsequently consumed
in the development of the trilobite and its companion forms,

1896.] Life Before Fossils. 193

must have been of very great duration; for the conditions
were such as to make evolution a slow process. The habitat
of these primeval life forms, the oceanic waters, was of the
greatest uniformity, even probably in temperature, and pos-
sessed no condition likely to provoke rapid variation. There
was abundant space and probably abundant food, particularly
in view of the minuteness and slight nutritive demands of
these early animals, and the struggle for existence could not
have been active. Though there wrere millions devoured
hourly, there were trillions provided for the feast, so that no
great tendency towards the preservation of favorable variations
would have existed.

Yet, though the influences which favor evolution were not
very actively present, they could not have been quite absent.
The innate tendency to vary wThich all living forms possess
now must have existed then, and the advantage possessed by
the more highly over the more lowly organized forms could not
have been quite wanting. Consequently, development of vary-
ing life forms must have gone on at some rate, and animals
must in time have appeared much higher in organization than
the simple forms from which they emerged.

And the variations which took place were radical in charac-
ter. Variation in the higher recent types of life does not pen-
etrate deeply. After ages of change a vertebrate is a vertebrate
still. Millions of years of change do not convert a cat into some-
thing radically distinct from a cat. But in the primitive period
the changes were more profound. Variation went down to the-
foundation plan of those simple forms and converted them at
once into something else. A degree of variation which now
would modify the form of a fish's fin may then have converted!
a monad into a new type of animal. Thus primitive evolution,
working on forms destitute of any definite organization, may
readily have brought into existence a number of highly differ-
ent types of life. As the microbe, for instance, may through
long variation have given rise to the two organic kingdoms of
animals and plants, so the amoeba or other low animal form
may have varied into the subkingdoms of mollusca, echinoder-
mata, ccelenterata, etc., or rather into simple swimming forms*
14

194 The American Naturalist. [March,

each of which was the progenitor of one of these great branches
of the tree of life.

We are here in a realm of the unknown, through which we
are forced to make our way slowly and uncertainly by aid of
the clues of embryology, microscopic life conditions, principles
of variation and development, an<J the known conditions of
pelagic life. We can only surmise that, as the result of a long
era of evolution,the simple primaryforms gave rise to a consider-
able variety of diverse animals, still comparatively minute in
size and simple in organization, swimming by means of cilia,
and typified to-day by the swimming embryos of invertebrate

As yet — if our hypothesis is well founded — no life existed
upon the bottom of the seas, and the swimming forms were
destitute of any hard parts capable of fossilization. But why
did not some of these forms very early make their way to the
bottom and begin life under the new conditions of contact with
solid substance? And yet why should they have sought the
bottom ? Their food supply lay on or near the surface, the
bottom of the shallow waters may have been unsuitable
through the deposition of soft sediment, and the bottom of the
deeper waters very sparse in food. And, more important still,
they were quite unadapted to life on the bottom, and needed a
radical transformation before they could survive under such
conditions. If we look at the remarkable change which the
swimming embryo of a star-fish or sea-urchin, for example,
goes through before any resemblance to the mature form
appears, we may gain some idea of the long series of variations
which the primitive ciliated swimmers must have passed
through to convert them into crawling or stationary bottom-
dwelling forms. Great as was the period needed to produce
these type forms of life, another extended period must have
been necessary to convert them into well adapted habitants of
the solid floor of the seas.

{To be Continued.)

BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA (FLY CATCHERS AND
OTHERS).

By G. S. Mead.

Among the many kinds of Flycatchers {Muscicapidse) in-
habiting the Papuan Islands, while there is dissimilarity in so
large a number of species, yet there are not those striking dif-
ferences amounting almost to contrasts which characterize
birds of greater size. Many species have been unnoticed by
travellers and other writers ; many exist only in cabinets and
collections, labelled and ticketed, or at most given a few lines
of technical summarization in catalogues. With the rank
and file of birds anything more than this is impossible.
Sometimes a particularly attractive specimen of Mahain or
Rhipidura or Pratincola calls attention to itself, or mere acci-
dent brings an individual to the notice of the explorer or

Thus Mr. Wallace notes pointedly " the abnormal red and
black flycatcher," Peltops blainrillii, so named by Lesson and
Garnot many years since. It is a sprightly, highly colored
bird with the predominant hues strongly contrasted and still
further accentuated by spots of white on the head and beneath
the wings. In flight this active little flycatcher presents in
turn these conspicuous markings with striking effect. The
red tint is a bright crimson spread over the lower back and
tail coverts. The main color is a steely-green black covering
with greater or less intensity the seven inches of total length.
The genus is represented by this species only.

The same notable expedition to South Eastern New Guinea
that secured the two beautiful prizes Cnemophilus macgregorii
and Amblyomis musgramanus, discovered also a new species of
flycatcher, viz., Rhipidura auricularis. It is described as hav-
ing the " upper surface smoky gray ; head brownish black ;
tail the same above and below ; bill dark brown ; legs black."
The head is marked by black and white stripes, found upon
the wings as well. Upon the chin, throat and breast similar

196 The American Naturalist. [March,

lines of unequal width are plainly drawn. The under parts
are in general buff varied with black and gray. Dots and
bars of white appear on the wings and tail. Its total length
is about six inches.

Rhipidura leucothorax, the Whitebreasted Fantailed Fly-
catcher, is much more widely distributed, being met with in
different parts of New Guinea. The descriptive name here de-
scribes very imperfectly, for the breast is by no means entirely
white as might be inferred ; black is almost as prominent, al-
ternating with the white which shows in spaces, though lower
down it crowds the black into narrow bands or crescents. The
general color of the bird above is brown, becoming dark upon the
head, still darker over the bill. The wings are black, finished
off with white spots. This is the appearance too of the tail
feathers as well as of the under side of the wings. There are
also white streaks and lines about the sides of the head and
throat. Bill black above. Length 8 inches.

The family of Wood Songsters (Pcecilodryas) are all small
birds rarely exceeding 6.5 inches in total length. The colora-
tion is in general black and white, the former greatly predom-
inating. Pcecilodryas albinotata at first sight looks in color not
unlike those fine drongos, the Edolias. In this instance, how-
ever, leaving the disparity of size out of account, the gray is
not nearly so uniform, a dull black and a deep black appear-
ing on the wings, tail and throat including the side face. A
patch of white meets the black on the sides of the neck.
White again is seen on the abdomen and under tail coverts,
becoming discolored along the flanks and sides of the body.

Pcecilodryas papuana comes from the same region of the
Arfak Mountains as the foregoing species. It is considerably
smaller in size measuring only 4-5 inches inches in length,
but of brighter color. This is a yellow, somewhat dull an
becoming light brown on the wings and tail. Head and neck
are darker than the body. A crescent of orange runs from
the bill over the eye.

Pcecilodryas leucops shares the same habitat. It is not un-
like the preceding in coloration of the body but that of the
head, nape and throat is entirely different. In this case it is

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 197

a dark gray, to gray on the neck with darker feathers over the
eye. White marks the upper throat and chin and appears as
a prominent spot in front of the eye. Total length nearly five
inches.

From the Arfak Mountains also comes Paecilodryas bimacu-
lata and from the same general region Paecilodryas hypoleuca
and P. brachyura and P. cinerea. The first is conspicuously
black and white, the former color preponderating very largely
of course, while the white shows as bands and bars or stripes.
It is most apparent on the lower parts where it may be reck-
oned as the ground color.

P. hypoleuca, the Whitebellied, is a rather larger bird, reach-
ing the length of 6 inches. The general color is dusky above,
relieved by white patches on the head. The same color
covers the under parts set off by black on breast and throat.
The last named — P. brachyura, the Shorttailed — is marked
similarly with the tones rather deeper and clearer. Length
5.5 inches.

Monachella muUeriana or saxicolina, a Chatlike Flycatcher,
is a lively little bird found as well in the south of New Guinea
along the Fly River, as in the north among the Arfak Moun-
tains. It is of grayish plumage above becoming nearly white
on the rump and tail coverts ; tail feathers and wings are dark
brown. The head is also dark brown with a line of white
over the eye. A spot of black lies near the bill. Below the
colors are nearly those of the upper parts, that is, the body is
a soft white, the wings brown. Bill and feet black. The
sexes are alike in markings and size, the length being about
six inches. They are both assiduous in the pursuit of insects,
generally along streams on level spaces.

Monarcha or Muscipeta melanopsis, the Carinated Gray Fly-
catcher, has a ring of short black feathers about the large full
eye, a discriminating characteristic, imparting with the strong
prominent bill a singular appearance to this Australian bird.
The entire throat and part of the face are also black, crowded
upon by the soft slate color which becomes deeper over the
rest of the body. The long tail above is dusky ; below, as
well as under the wings and on the abdomen, the color is a

198 TJte American Naturalist.

[Ma

bright rufous. The female is unmasked about the head and
throat. Feet plumbeous. Length 7 inches.

One of the loveliest, certainly the most brilliant of Fly-
catchers is Monarcha chrysomela, the Goldenhooded. Blue-
black and gold are the boldly contrasted colors of this bright
little creature whose length is 6 inches. The ground color is
orangeyellow ; this is almost equally rich whenever it is
spread. Jet black with a blue gloss covers the entire throat
and upper breast, the upper back, the outer wing feathers and
tail. An irregular stripe of the same bends round the shoul-
der. The deepest black is on the throat where the thick plu-
mage is metallic. The crown is roughened into a kind of
crest. The bill and feet are black. All besides, as has been
said, is a lovely yellow, making the bird a most conspicuous
object among the dark trees.

Todopsis cyanocephala of the Muscicapidse is adorned with a
blue crown, as its name indicates. This rich color appears
besides on the neck, back and wings though of a somewhat
different shade. A purpleblack runs down the lower back and
covers the tail, excepting the two middle feathers which are of
bluish tinge. The under parts are of a dark purple also, be-
coming black beneath the wings. The bill and feet are dull
black. The length of the male bird is rather more than
six inches, the female about an inch less. Her coloring is
almost as rich, but different. A warm brown takes the place
of black above, a light buff of the black below, though along
the sides as far as the under tail coverts the brown reappears.
Blue colors the head and stripes the neck, showing lighter on
the tail where it is much mingled with white.

Malurus albiscapulatus is scarcely 4 inches in length but is
not only of rich velvety plumage but of conspicuous appear-
ance also, for its white patches on a black ground color attract
attention at once. These patches occur on either side of the
body both above and below, those above showing finely when
the bird is in flight, those below lining the chest from the
bend of the wings. Elsewhere the plumage is a deep black of
a bluish cast, soft and lustrous. The home of the species is in
Southeast as well as Northwest New Guinea.

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 199

Caterpillarcatchers (Campephaga) abound in New Guinea of
varying degrees of beauty, some being bright of hue, others
almost somber. A few individuals not in strict order are con-
sidered here.

Campephaga sloetii or aurulenta, according to d'Albertis
(Vide Journal), is a rare bird in collections but is distributed all
over New Guinea. He found it most numerous far up the "Fly
River, but obtained but one specimen in a native's garden,
feeding on the small berries of a tall tree. It is a yellow bird,
very vivid on certain parts, duller on the wings where there is
more or less black and white as well, and golden yellow on
the breast and abdomen. The head, sides of head and throat
are marked with gray, black greenglossed, and a band of
white. White inclining to yellow lines the under wings.
Bill, feet and eyes are black. The bill is short and strong.

Where the male bird is brilliant and positive in color, the
female assumes paler shades and neutral tones. She is some-
what longer, measuring nearly 8 inches in total length.

The tail feathers of the male are marked with white, espe-
cially the outer ones.

The mountain Cuckoo-shrike, Campephaga montana or Edo-
liisoma montana is a fine bird from the Arfak region. The
contrasted colors, bluegray above, black below, are so care-
fully marked as to render their wearer easily distinguished
from his kind. The same may be said of the female who is
equally conspicuous in unusually clear colors and a perfectly
black tail.

The Bluegray Campephaga, Campephaga strenua (Schl.),
from about the same region is colored mainly as its name in-
dicates, the customary black appearing on the throat and in
a line on the head. The bill and feet are also black ; some of
the tail feathers likewise, but a rusty tinge marks the lower
wing coverts. The bill is unuusally powerful for so small a
bird.

Campephaga melas or Edoliisoma nigi-um is found in different
parts of Papua. It is a larger bird and with a coloration not
at all characteristic of the class to which it bears so similar a
name. The male is of a glossy black, reflecting purple along

200 The American Naturalist [March,

the wing and tail coverts. The female, longer than her mate
in size, is also quite distinct in plumage. A marked reddish
dye takes the place of lustrous black. On the head the color
is warmer than on the body. The wings are shaded, in some
individuals dusky.

Edoliisoma lenuirostris or Campephaga jardinii (Gould), the
Slenderbilled Cuckoo-shrike, is an Australian bird but found
also in New Guinea near Port Moresby. It is about a foot
long, of a cloudy blue color, excepting on the side face where
it becomes black, and on wings and tail which contain rather
more black than blue. The outer tail feathers underneath
terminate in white. The bill is black and anything but
slender. Feet black, eyes brown.

In 1882 the nest was found by Mr. C. C. L. Talbot in a
Eucalyptus tree. It was composed of wiry grasses securely
fastened together with cobwebs on the thin forked horizontal
branch. The eggs laid in the small shallow depression were
ovoid in shape and of a pale bluish gray ground dotted irreg-
ularly over with dark brown spots and lines.
(To be Continued.)

EDITOR'S TABLE.
— We notice that the project of a National University to be estab-
lished at Washington has been again brought up before Congress.
Washington has many advantages as a location for a university, and
the Methodists and Catholics bave not been slow to take advantage of
them. The Columbian University, a non-sectarian institution, is
located there. That it devolves on the nation under any circumstances
to establish a university there or anywhere else we fail to perceive. So
long as institutions of this kind exist either by virtue of State support
or private munificence, there is no necessity for the intervention of the
Government in this part of the educational field, but there are strong
reasons why it should not do so. The financial basis of all institutions
supported by congressional appropriations is always precarious. The
subsidies are liberal while they last, but changes in the fiscal pol-
icy of the Government produce fluctuations in the revenue, and
expenditures are varied accordingly. Then the faculty of such an
institution would be under bonds to please the congressional majority,

re

NatrLr compressicuuda. 2. U

1896.] Editor's Table. 201

or the revenues might be reduced or suspended. The teachings on
certain subjects might be interfered with or controlled by the appoint-
ing power, and the appointments to positions would probably become
political perquisites. Nothing more disastrous to the proper conduct
of a university can be imagined, and an institution established under
such conditions would soon cease to be a credit to the nation. We
hope that the project will not prevail, not only for these reasons but for
another. This is, that the Government has in connection with its
departments various commissions and bureaus, which occupy them-
selves with original scientific research in connection with the various
economic objects of their care. These should be continued and ex-
panded if possible, and not, as is sometimes the case, weakened by
insufficient appropriations. If the Government at Washington will
support this work it will be doing more for education than any univer-
sity can do, and will continue to add to its credit among nations in
the future as it has done in the past.

— The X-rays of Roentgen will prove of some utility to some
branches of biological research by disclosing the characters of mineral
substances enclosed within the walls of animals and plants. A good
many characters of the skeleton, for instance, may be detected in
specimens which cannot be spared for maceration, and other applica-
tions will occur to both botanists and zoologists. We present, as an
illustration, a sciagraph of a species of sunfish (Lepomis), made by
Messrs Leeds and Stokes, of Queen & Co., of Philadelphia.

— Another excellent journal, this time a French one, has been led
astray by attaching too much importance to the romances of the Ameri-
can newspaper reporter. We refer to the story published some months
ago by a San Francisco journal that a physician of that city had suc-
ceeded in grafting some snakes together by their tails. The fictitious
character of the narrative is demonstrated by the statement that the
said physician selected snakes in which the vertebral column does not
extend to the end of the tail. If the editor of the journal had referred
the question to the professors of the Museum of Paris, he would have
learned that snakes of this kind exist only in the imagination of the
author of the canard.

— We published a statement some months ago that Mr. L. O. How-
ard of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture had discovered that the application
of oil to water where mosquitoes breed, destroys both the eggs and the
larvse of those pestilent insects. We are reminded by an exchange
that the alleged discovery was made by Mrs. Eugene Aaron in Phila-

The American Naturalist. [March,

; probably indiscreet in referring to Prof. Howard's

i involving more than a modicum of " discovery." On

re find that the knowledge of this mode of destroying

tedates not only his observations, but also those of Mrs.

The information has, however, not been generally disseminated

— The American Society of Naturalists, at its last meeting, adopted
a resolution commending to the public the importance of Antarctic
exploration. A committee of three was appointed to take measures
looking towards sending an expedition to Antarctica in the near future.
At about the same time England and Australia joined in supplying
the funds necessary for such an exploration of the land lying south of Tas-
mania within the Antarctic circle. The natural object of an American
expedition is, of course, the exploration of Graham's Land, which lies
due south of Patagonia. For the advance of knowledge of the physics
of the globe, explorations of the polar regions are of the first import-
ance ; and the results to the history of its biology in past ages, will be
scarcely less important. America has done her full share of Arctic ex-
ploration; and in the person of Commodore Wilkes made a beginning
in Antarctic work. It is now fully time for us to resume this work,
and it is to be hoped that the means of sending the expedition may be
speedily obtained.

— The Huxley Memorial Committee have raised the considerable
sum of £1532, and are considering the uses to which it may be put. It
has been resolved to erect a statue of Huxley in the British Museum,
and to endow the award of a medal for meritorious work in biology.
It is now desired that the amount may be increased for the purpose of
creating another endowment. Should sufficient subscriptions be ob-
tained in America, it might become appropriate that this new endow-
ment should have its seat in this country. The scientific men of
America hold in high esteem the biological work of Huxley, and there
are many reasons why a foundation in his memory would be grateful

Recent Literature.

EECENT LITERATUKE.

■Williams's Manual of Lithology1 is written for the "begin-
ner in the subject who wishes a thorough knowledge in the presenta-
tion of the subject, in a fuller and more compact arrangement than
can be obtained in geological text-books. The arrangement is such
that those who wish to continue the work in the microscopic analysis
of rock forming minerals, as taught in petrography, will have nothing

The latter statement of the author is notquite true, for, in his clas-
sification of the rocks discussed, he places among the crystalline schists
quartzite, pyroxene rock and olivine rock that present no traces of
foliation. In the main, however, the classification is good. The rocks
are divided into Primary Rocks and Secondary Rocks, and each of
these groups is separated into "Divisions" in accordance with their
chemical composition. Of the different families or "divisions" the
efTusive rocks are first described and then the intrusive ones. The
Secondary Rocks embrace the Debris, the Sedimentary and the Meta-
morphic divisions, the first of which differs from the second in consist-
ing of unconsolidated materials.

Nearly all the rock varieties recognized by petrographers are briefly
described, and even many that are no longer recognized as distinct
types. The descriptions are all based on macroscopic characters, but
they are, in most cases, full enough to enable the user of the book to
identify the type.

The terminology made use of in the description is somewhat differ-
ent from" that used in petrographical text-books, but, since it is em-
ployed in the description of hand specimens and not of their sections,
this is to be expected. All the terms used are clearly defined, and
many of the new ones introduced are perhaps needed.

The main faults to be found with the volume are that it attempts to
discriminate between too many rock types, and that it contains too
many rock names that have long since gone out of use. In spite of
these faults, the treatise is a valuable one, and it should meet with
success. The typographical work is excellent. The plates are from
photographs, and are illustrative of rock structures.— W. S. B.

1 Manual of Lethology : Treating of the Principles of the Science, with Special
Reference to Meguscopic Analysis. By Edward H. Williams. 2d Ed. New-
York : John Wiley & Sons, 1895. Pp. ri, 418; plates 6. Price, |3.00.

204 The American Naturalist. [March,

The Corundum Deposits of Georgia.2— This preliminary re-
port on the corundum deposits of Georgia, by Francis P. King, has
been issued as Bulletin No. 2 by the Geol. Survey of that State. The
importance of corundum in the arts, and the high price paid for it,
together with the fact that Georgia ranks second in the "Union in the
production of this mineral, make the report of special interest. The
introductory chapters give the history, varieties and associate minerals
of corundum, succeeded by a brief account of the geology of the crys-
talline belt in which the mineral occurs and the distribution of depos-
its. Several pages are given to the economics, including natural and
artificial abrasives. There is also a bibliography of the American
literature upon the subject.

The map accompanying the report is well-colored, showing at a
glance the different formations. The other illustrations are reproduc-
tions from photographs, showing out-crops of the mineral bearing veins.

Bailey's Plant Breeding.5— No man in the country, perhaps, is
better prepared to write a book on plant breeding than the accom-
plished professor of horticulture in Cornell University, and it is a
pleasure to find that in the preparation of the work before us he has
not disappointed his friends. There is, as the author says in his pre-
face, much misapprehension and imperfect knowledge as to the origin-
ation of new forms of plants, and much of what has been written on
the subject is misleading. " Horticulturists commonly look upon each
novelty as an isolated fact, whilst we ought to regard each one as but
an expression of some law of the variation of plants." The author
might have included in the foregoing many "botanists" as well as the
horticulturists, for, unfortunately, it is true that many who call them-
selves botanists, and who hold positions in honored institutions, have
not yet risen to a biological conception of the science which they pro-
fess to cultivate.

Among the topics treated in these lectures are the following, viz. :
individuality, fortuitous variation, sex as a factor in the variation of
plants, physical environment and variation, struggle for life, division
of labor, crossing, etc.

The book should be in every botanist's library, and every teacher of
botany will do well to make copious extracts from it in his lectures.

1 A Preliminary Eeport on the Corundum Deposits of Georgia. By Francis P.
King, Bull. No. 2, Georgia Geological Survey, Atlanta, 1894.

s Plant Breeding, being five lectures upon the Amelioration of Domestic Plants.
By L. H. Bailey. New York : Macmillan & Co., 1895. pp. xii, 293, 12 mo.

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 205

The following, from page 135, will show many teachers that much
may be learned from this book : " Some two or three years ago, a lead-
ing eastern seedsman conceived of a new form of bean-pod which would
at once commend itself to his customers. He was so well convinced of
the merits of this prospective variety, that he made a descriptive and
" taking" name for it. He then wrote to a noted bean-raiser, describ-
ing the proposed variety and giving the name. ' Can you make it for
me?' he asked. 'Yes, I will make you the bean,' replied the grower.
The seedsman then announced in his catalogue that he would soon in-
troduce a new bean, and, in order to hold the name, he published it
along with the announcement. Two years later I visited the bean-
grower. ' Did you get that bean ? ' I asked. 'Yes; here it is.' Sure
enough, he had it, and it answered the requirements very well."

— Charles E. Bessey.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report State Geologist of New Jersey for the year 1894. Trenton,
1895. From the Survey.

Barboza du Bocage. — Herp&ologie d' Angola et du Congo. Lisbonne, 1895.
From the author.

Baur, G.— Die Palatingegend der Ichthyosauria. Aus Anat. Anz., Bd. r,
Nr. 14.

Ueber den Proatlas einer Schildkrote (Platypeltis spimfer Les.). Aus

Anat. Anz., Bd. X, Nr. 11. From the author.

Brewer, W. H. — Atmospheric Phenomena in the Arctic Regions in their Re-
lation to Dust. Extr. Yale Scientific Month, June, 1895. From the author.

Bronn, H. G— Klassen und Ordungen des Their-Reichs, Sechster Bd. V
Abth. 42, 43 u 44, Lief. Leipziz, 1895.

Bulletin No. 30, 1894, and 31, 1895, Agric. Exper. Station Rhode Island Col-
lege Agric. and Mechanic Arts.

Bulletin No. 44, 1895, Agricultural Experiment Station University of Wffoon-

Bulletin No. 57, 1895, Massachusetts State Agricultural Experiment Station.
Bulletin No. 112, 1895, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.
Bulletins V ing Experiment Station. Laramie, 1895.

Bulletins Nos. 30, 31 and 32, Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, 1895.
Cambridge Natural History, Vol. V. Peripatus, Adam Sedgwick Myria-
pods, F. G. Sinclair. Insects, David Sharp. London and New York, 1895.

Campbell, D. H.— The Structure and Development of the Mosses and the
Ferns. London and New York, 1895. From the Pub., Macmillan & Co.

Check-List of North American Birds. 2d Ed. New York, 1895. From the
Am. Ornithol. Union.

Naturalist

[March,

Eimer, Th.— Die Artbilding and Verwandtschaft bei den Schmetterlingen, II
Theil. Erne Systematische Darstellung der Abiinderungen, Abarten und Arten
der Schwalbenschwanz-ahnlichen Formen der Gattung Papilio. Jena, 1895.
From the author.

Froggatt, W. W.— Notes on the Sub-Family Brachyscelinse, with descrip-
tions of New Species. Pt. IV, Extr. Vol. X (Ser. 2). Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N.
S. Wales, 1895. From the author.

Gilette, C. P. and C. F. Baker.— A Preliminary List of the Hemiptera of
Colorado. Bull. No. 31, 1895. Colorado State Agric. College. From the au-

Haeckel, E.— Systematische Phylogenie der Wirbelthiere (Vertebrata) Dritter
Theil , Berlin, 1895. From the author.

Hay, O. P.— On t
Amia. Field C

Hobbs, W. H — A Contribution t
Wisconsin, Sci. Series, Vol. 1, 1895-

Hollick, A-— -A New Fossil Nelumbo from the Laramie Group at Florence,

Colorado. Wing-like Appendages on the Petioles of JJriophyllum pojmlmdes

Lesq., and IAriodendrcm alatum Newb., with descriptions of the latter. Extrs.

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, XXI, 1894. Descriptions of New Leaves from the

Cretaceous (Dakota Group) of Kansas. Ibid, XXII, 1895. From the author.

Hubrecht, A. A. W.— Die Phylogenese des Amnions und die Bedeutung des
Trophoblastes. Aus Verhandl. K. Acad. Wetenschap. Amsterdam, Tweede Sect
Dl. XV, No. 5, 1895. From the author.

Element, M. C— Sur l'Origine de la Dolomite dans les formations se\Iimen-
taires. Extr, Bull. Soc. Beige de Geol., T. IX, Bruxelles, 1895.

Laboratory Studies Oregon State Agricultural College, Vol. I, No. 1, 1895.
From F. L. Washburn.

Lucas, F. A.— The Tongues of Wood-peckers. Extr. Bull. No. 7, Div.
Ornith. and Mam., U. S. Dept. Agric. From the author.

Miller, S. A. and Wm. F. E. Gurley. Description of New Species of Paleo-
zoic Echinodermata. Bull. No. 6 of the 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist., 1895.

Minot, C. S.— Ueber die Vererbung und Verjungung. Aus. Biol. Centralb.
Bd., XV, Nr. 15, Leipzig, 1895. From the author.

Mivart G.— On the Hyoid Bone of Certain Parrots. Extr. Proceeds. Zool.
Soc. London, 1895. From the author.

Morgan, T. H.— Studies of the "Partial" Larvae of Sphaerechinus. The

Formation of One Embryo from Two Blastulse. A Study of a Variation in

Cleavage. Aus. Archiv. f. Entwickelungsmeehanik der Organism, II Bd. Leip-
zig, 1895. From the author.

Murray, G.— An Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds. London and New
York, 1895, Macmillan & Co. From John Wanaraaker's.

New York State Museum Reports, 44, 45, 46, for the years 1891, 1892 and
1893. From Prof. Hall, State Geologist.

Records of the Australian Mus*um, Vol. II, No. 6. From the Museum.

Report of the Committee on Royal Society Catalogue. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., Vol. 6, 1894.

Report upon the World's Markets for Ameri
Dept. Agric , Sect. Foreign Markets, Washingtc

Sfcoufs, r —Deux Monstres Gasteropages a
Soc. Zool. de France, 1895. From the author.

Singleton, M. T.— Gravitation and Cosmological Law. Atianta, Ga., 1895.

Sherwood, \V. L.— The Salamanders found in the Vicinity of New York
City, with notes on Extra-Limital or Allied Species. Eitr. Proceeds. Linn. .<<><•.
New York, No. 7, 1 895. From the author.

Slosson, E. E— The Heating Power of Wyoming Coal and Oil. Special
Bull., 1895. Wyoming University. From the author.

Smith, J. B.— Contribution toward a Monograph of the Insects of the Lepidop-

terous Family Noctuida? of Boreal North Am. A Revision of the heltoid

Moths. Bull. No. 48, 1895. U. S. Natl. Mus. From the Smithsonian Institu-

Smith, J. P.— Geologic Study of Migrations of Marine Invertebrates. Extr.
Journ. Geol., Vol. Ill, 1895.

Tarr, R. S.— Elementery Physical Geography. New York and London, 1 895.
Macmillan & Co. From John Wanamaker's.

Townsend, C. H.— Birds from Coccos and Malpelo Islands, with Notes on
Petrels Obtained at Sea. Bull. Harv. Mus. Comp. Zool , Vol. XXVII, No. 3,
1895.

Ward, L, F.— Relation of Sociology to Anthropology. Extr. Am. Anthropol.,
1895. From the author.

Weekly Weather Crop Bulletins, 3, 4 and 21. 1895, issued by the North Caro-
lina State Weather Service.

Wiedersheim, R.-The Structure of Man, an Index to His Past History.
Translated by H. and B. Bernard. London and New York, 1895. From Mac-

Wilder, B. G.— The Cornell University Museum of Vertebrates. Extr.

Ithaca Daily Journ., 1895. The Cerebral Fissures of Two Philosophers,

( lumiicy Wright and J. E. Oliver. Extr. Journ. Comp. Neurol.. Vol. V, 1895.

Williams, H. S.— Geological Biology. New York, 1895, Henry Holt & Co.

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY.1

The Eruptives of Missouri. — Haworth2 has described in much
detail the dyke3 and acid eruptives in the Pilot Knob region, Missouri.
The dyke rocks are typical diabases, diabase-porphy rites, quartz-diabase-

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Mo- Geol. Survey, Vol. VIII, 1895, p. 83-222.

208 The American Naturalist. [March,

porphyrites and melaphyres. The author unfortunately classes as
diabase-porphy rites both glassy and holocrystalline rocks. The acid
rocks of the region include granites, granite-porphyries, porphyrites
and quartz-porphyries. The first two are characteristically granophyr-
ic. Their orthoclases are often enlarged by granophyre material
whose feldspar is fresh, while the nucleal feldspar is much altered.
The quartzes likewise, are enlarged by the addition of quartz around
them. There were two periods of crystallization in these rocks. In
the second period the phenocrysts were corroded and the groundmass
was produced. In addition to the quartz and orthoclase there are
present in these rocks also biotite, hornblende, plagioclase and a num-
ber of accessory and secondary components. The porphyries and
porphyrites contain the same constituents as the granites, from which
they are separated simply on account of differences in structure. The
phenocrysts are mainly orthoclose, plagioclase, microcline and quartz,
many of which are fractured in consequence of magma motions. The
groundmass in which these lie is of the usual components of porphyry
groundmasses, and in texture is microgram tic, granophyric, micropeg-
matitic and spherulitic. Many of the porphyries contain fragments of
their material surrounded by a matrix of the same composition in
which flowage lines are well exhibited. These rocks are evidently
volcanic breccias. The author divides the porphyritic rocks into por-
phyries and porphyrites, the latter containing plagioclase phenocrysts
and the former phenocrysts of quartz, orthoclase and microcline.

Rocks from Eastern Africa.— The volcanic rocks of Shoa and
the neighborhood of the Gulf of Aden in Eastern Africa comprise a
number of varieties that have been carefully studied by Tenne.3 The
main mass of the mountains of the region consists of biotite-muscovite
gneiss. This is cut by nepheline basanites, the freshest specimens of
which contain phenocrysts of olivine, augite and feldspar in a ground-
mass of plagioclase, augite, nepheline and often olivine. Trachytes,
phonolites and basalts occur in the Peninsula of Aden. The trachytes
include fragments of augite-andesite. Inland granophyres with pseu-
dospherulites in their groundmass, trachytes and feldspathic basalts
were met with. The granophyres are much altered. In the fine
grained product formed by the decomposition of the groundmass of one
occurrence quartz, feldspar, and a blue hornblende with the properties
of glaucophane can be detected. All the rocks are briefly described.
They present no peculiar features other than those indicated.
3Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., XLV, p. 451.

1896.] Petrography. 209

A Basic Rock derived from Granite.— Associated with the
ores in the hematite mines of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N.
Y., is a dark eruptive rock that was called serpentine by Emmons.
Smyth4 (C. H.) has examined it microscopically and has discovered
that it consists of a chlorite-like mineral, fragments of quartz and feld-
spar. By searching carefully he discovered less altered phases of the
rock that were identified as granite. The peculiar alteration of an
acid granite to a basic chlorite rock is ascribed to chemical agencies.
According to the author's notion the pyrite in a neighboring highly
pyritiferous gneiss was decomposed, yielding iron sulphates and sul-
phuric acid. These solutions passed into limestone yielding the ores
and then into the granite changing it into chlorite. The altered rock
is found only with the ores. The original was probably not always
granite. An analysis of the altered rock gave :

Cancrinite-Syenite from Finland.— In the southeastern por-
tion of the Parish Kuolajaroe in Finland, Ramsay and Nyholm5
secured specimens of a nepheline-syenite containing a large quantity of
what the authors regard as original cancrinite. The rock is found as-
sociated with gneissoid granite at Pyhakurn. The rock is trachytic
in structure and is composed of orthoclase, aegerine, cancrinite and
nepheline as essential constituents and apatite, sphene and pyrite as
accessories. The cancrinite was the last mineral to crystallize. It
occupies the spaces between the other components, and yet it often pos-
sesses well defined hexagonal forms. It occurs also as little prisma
included within the orthoclase. Because of this association and because
the nepheline in the rock is perfectly fresh the cancrinite is regarded as
original. This mineral comprises 29.04% of the entire rock.

The same authors in the same paper describe a porphyritic melilite
rock found as a loose block a few kilometers W. N.-W. of Lake
Wuorijarvi. It contains large porphyritic crystals of melilite, pyrox-
ene and biotite in a groundmass composed of labradorite, zeolites and
calcite. The pyroxenes are made up of a colorless augite nucleus sur-
rounded by zones of light green aegerine-augite and deep green aeger-
ine. No olivine was detected in any of the thin sections.

* Jour. Geology, Vol. 2, p. 667.

'Bull. Com. Geol. d. 1. Finn., No. 1.

15

210 The American Natu

Rocks from the Sweet Grass Hills, Montana.— Weed and
Pirsson6 describe the rocks of the Sweet Grass Hills of Montana as
quartz-diorite-porphyrites, quartz-syenite-porphyries and minettes. The
first named rock presents no special peculiarities. The quartz-syenite-
porphyry contains orthoclase, plagioclase and augite-phenocrysts in a
fine groundmass of allotriomorphic feldspar and quartz. The augite
is in short thick prisms composed of a pale green diopside core, which
passes into a bright green aegerite mantle. The miuette also contains
aegerine, but otherwise it is typical.

Petrographical News.— Two peculiar phonolitic rocks are de-
scribed by Pirsson7 from near Fort Claggett, Montana. One is a
leucite-sodalite-tinguaite, with leucite pseudomorphs, and sodalite as
phenocrysts in a groundmass composed mainly of a felt of orthoclase
and aegerine. The leucite pseudomorphs are now an aggregate of
orthoclase and nepheline. In the centers of some of them are small
stout prisms of an unknown brown mineral, that is pleochroic in brown-
ish and yellowish tints. The second rock is a quartz-tinguaite porphyry
somewhat similar to Brogger's grorudite.8

In a few notes on the surface lava flows associated with the Unkar
beds of the Grand Canon series in the Canon of the Colorado, Ariz.,
Iddings9 briefly describes compact and amygdaloidal basalts and fresh
looking dolerites that are identical in all respects with modern rocks of
the same character.

Laspeyres10 estimates that the quantity of carbon-dioxide in liquid
and gaseous form contained in rocks is sufficient to serve as the source
for all that which escapes from the earth's natural fissures as gas, as
well as that which escapes in solution with spring water. It may be
set loose from the rocks through the action of heat or through the
action of dynamic forces.

In a handsomely illustrated brochure Merrill11 describes the charac-
f the onyx marbles and the processes by which they originate.
1 temperature, according to the author, are not the control-
determining the differences in texture between the
avertine. He is inclined to the belief that the banded
onyxes were formed by deposition from warm solutions under pressure
flowing into pools of quiet cold water.

•Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. I, p. 309.

7 Amer. Journ. Sci., 1895, Nov. p. 394.

8 American Naturalist, 1895, p. 567.

9 14th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 520.
iturh. Ver. preuss. Rheinl., No. 2, 1894, p. 17.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 211

In a preliminary report on the Geology of Essex County, N. Y.,
Kemp11 describes the occurrences of the gneisses, limestones, ophi-
calcites, gabbros, lamprophyres and other igneous rocks of the district,
and gives an account of their geological relationships.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Bear River Formation.— The explorations of Mr. Stanton and
Mr. Charles White in the Bear River Valley have been the means of
correcting a long standing error among geologists concerning the taxo-
nomic position of strata known as the Bear River Formation. A
summary of the facts as presented by Mr. White in a late Bulletin
of the U. S. Geol. Survey shows that the formation under discussion is
not Laramie, to which age it has been hitherto been referred, but be-
longs to the Upper Cretaceous, at or near the base of that series. That
is its position has been determined by Mr. Stanton as beneath the
Colorado formation, and above that series of Jurassic strata which
occurs within a large part of the interior region of North America
generally regarded as of Upper Jurassic age and which in the general
section given is called " Dakota? " This accords with the reputed age
of a formation in Hungary, whose ft ke that of the

Bear River series of strata than of any other known.

Mr. White, therefore, defines the Bear River series as a distinct for-
mation stratigraphically, geographically, and paleontologically, and
states in detail its taxonomic position. All the known fossils of the
formation are described and figured, comparisons are made of its fauna
with those of other nonmarine formations of this and other continents,
and relevant biological questions are discussed.

In making a general comparison of the Bear Ri?er fauna with the
other nonmarine fossil faunas of North America, Dr. White calls atten-
tion to those features of the Bear Fauna by which it differs conspic-
uously from all the others. Reference is here especially made to the
Auriculidse and Melaniid*, because it is members of these two families
that give the Bear River Fauna its most distinctive character. In this
connection the author remarks " this faunal character is all the more con-
spicuous because, of the six genera which represent those two families,
only two of them are known in any other North American fauna,
either fossil or recent."

12 Keport of State Geologist [of New York] for 1893, p. 433.

212 The American Naturalist

[March,

The similarities and contrasts between the fauna of the Bear River
formation and those of the other nonmarine beds of North America
leads to a discussion of their causes. The author suggests that certain
genetic lines of descent have become diverged from the main lines of
succession and destroyed by some of those physical changes which mark
successive epochs, and adds " we may reasonably assume that one of
those divergent lines terminated in the Bear River fauna ; that is, at
the close of the Bear River epoch the area which its nonmarine waters
had occupied having become overspread by the marine waters in which
the Colorado formation was deposited, it is not probable that any
fluvial outlet of the former nonmarine waters was perpetuated, and
there was, therefore, no provisional habitat in which the Bear River
fauna might have been preserved. It was probably in this way that
the distinguishing types of that fauna became extinct, together with
others of its members which were not so specially characteristic of it."
(Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 128, Washington, 1895.)

On the Occurrence of Neocene Marine Diatomaceae near
New York.— The rocks which contain Diatomaceie (or Bacillariacese)
in America are clayey, that is to say they contain more or less of clay,
and they vary in color from a nearly white to a fawn color and to a
greenish, greyish-brownish or almost black. They are not older than
the Oligocene nor newer than the Plistocene. They can be placed in
the Neocene, a period that ranges from the Eocene to the Plisto-
cene, and not in the recent. Those I have to describe in New York
are not Miocene, but they belong to a place which may provisionally
be classed as Pliocene or Plistocene of the European geologists.

Ever since 1843, the so-called infusorial earth has been known in
Virginia and was thought by Rogers the discoverer to be Miocene
Tertiary, he classifying it as the European rocks were. Bailey accepted
the classification and so did the later geologists. When fresh water
fossil'Diatomacese were found in Massachusetts they were thought to be
Miocene also without studying the rocks themselves and seeing how
they stood in the geological scale. When they were found in New
Hampshire I did not classify them nor did Hitchcock attempt to do so.
They were placed in the lacustrine Sedimentary and provisionally in
the!Recent. But now they can be seen to be older than the Recent
and|must^be placed in a position by themselves. In the Iceberg period,
the Champlaiu, when the ice which covered the country was beginning

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 213

to melt, icebergs which formed by the breaking off of the ice on the
border were common. The icy water had Bacillariacese in it, for
they existed, as they do now, when the temperature was at 0° C. This
flowed down to the lower regions from the north and northwest.

In California I did not classify the rocks containing the Bacillariaceie
leaving that to the older and more experienced geologists. Blake, who
had discovered them at Monterey, supposed them to be Miocene, for he
saw as Bailey showed them to be similar to the Virginian ones. In
Japan where I discovered them also I failed to classify them for Pum-
pelly, who had brought them home did not place them likewise. When
the infusorial earth was found in Florida, it had also been placed in the
Miocene Tertiary by Bailey. And when I had it from that state sub-
sequently at Manatee, I failed to classify it because I had not visited
the spot where it came from myself. Now I believe these are older
than what is called the Miocene. And I am confirmed in this supposi-
tion by what Towney said of the Virginia stratum. I prefer to place
them as far back as the Upper Eocene, the Oligocene as it is called.
In New Jersey at Asbury Park and Atlantic City the infusorial earth
has been found by Woolman and classified by him as Miocene. But
further north on the Atlantic side of the continent it has not been seen.
I examiued the clay that was dug at about two feet down at Foley's,
South Beach, Staten Island, N. Y., but although it contained marine
Bacillariaeese it was not what I wanted. I thought it belonged to the
Raised Coast period. At Martha's Vineyard, Mass. the clay classed as
Miocene by Dall did not contain any Bacillariaca?.

It was on the 11th of August, 1895, that I visited Rockaway to get
rest from the turmoil and heat of the city. Rockaway is a beach or
promontory which extends down from a place called Far Rockaway
southwards on the coast of Long Island. Long Island is made up of
hills of no great height extending down the middle or on the north shore
of the island. A low range of country extends down the southern
shore where the Atlantic Ocean begins. It is fringed by sandy bars
which are mostly islands. These islands extend down the coast from
Cape Cod, Mass. to Florida. Key West is the most southern of the
islands which are known in Florida as Keys. The country on the
Atlantic side of the island is low, sloping down to the coast without any
elevation in it.

I knew that I should go down by rail cutting through the hills until
I came transversely to the island to the promontory of Rockaway. It
is true that I wanted to get out of the cities heat but I had also two other
reasons for going. I wanted to study the glacial phenomena which I

214 The American Naturalist.

[March,

knew would present themselves there. At the same time I desired to
search for the infusorial earth. At one place we came to a kettle hole,
at the Lutheran Cemetery. I was sure it was a kettle hole and knew
there was clay, a Lacustrine Sedimentary deposit of Diatomacese, at the
bottom. I saw the glacial moraine made up of gravel and sand all
along the road. The moraine was a gravelly till with boulders
scattered through it.' On the top it was capped by a layer of about
three feet thick of whitish clay. This I knew to be diatomaceous, the
same as covers the country in New Jersey and on Manhattan or New
York Island. As we approached the station known as Brooklyn Hills
we cut through three high hills which I saw then and afterwards were
made up of moraine stuff, mostly gravel, with a white clay about three
feet thick on top. The clay was the same as we had just passed. It
makes the bottom of the glacial clay, the Lacustrine Sedimentary de-
posits of Diatomacete. In this moraine I afterwards got a small dis-
tinctly striated boulder and near the bottom of the hill, about twelve
feet from the bottom was a grey clay with Hematite nodules in it.
Cretaceous clay no doubt.

The country became flat with no rising in it and sloping gradually
towards the coast where we came to the station known as Aqueduct.
Cretaceous clay underlies the country doubtless covered by glacial till
or moraine. At Aqueduct the railroad runs out on tressels to Rock-
away. At Rockaway Beach I landed and wandered south on the
promontory but found nothing but white siliceous sand, they were not
digging anywhere that I could find. I wandered north in the direc-
tion of Far Rockaway where the land became higher and was covered
by the whitish Iceberg period clay which evidently came from the
north-west. At Auvergne they had been digging a ditch to reclaim the
land from the sea. This was on the opposite side of Rockaway to the
Atlantic Ocean, on Jamaica Bay. The digging was over six feet deep.
They had thrown out some of the Iceberg clay and below that some
greyish soil without any stones in it. I saw at once that it was different
in character from the soil on the marshes and which I had learned be-
longed to the Raised Coast or Champlain Period. I took some home
and examined it and came to the conclusion that I had found what I
was in search of, the infusorial earth. It was no doubt what may be
termed Pliocene Tertiary and belonged to the Neocene Period.

I cleaned some aud found the following Bacillaricese in it besides
some form-- ol So me few usual forms

escaped me but will probably be found heretfter.

Geology and Paleontology.

Achnanthes svbsessilis C. G. E.
Actinocyclus ehrenbergii J. R.
Actinoptychus undulatus C. G

E.
Anliscus ccelatu* J. W. B.
An Uncus pruinosus J. W. B.
Aitliscvs radiatus J. W. B.

Anl'li-odtSCUs '

C. G.

Amphora oralis P. T. K.
Amphiprora elegans W. S.
Amphiprora navicularis C. G. E.
Amphiprora pulchra J. W. B.
Biddulphia aurita A. B.
Biddulphia pulchella G.
Biddulphia rhombus W. S.
Cerataulus radiatus J. R.
Cerataulus SJnithii W. 8.
Cerataulus turgida W. S.
Coscinodiscus asteromphnh:* C.

G. E.
Coscinodiscus excentricus C. G. E.
CoacmodwcMs su&fc7« C. G. E.
Coscinodiscus lineutus C. G. E.
CW/>j</tfiVcH* hjMm* W. G.
Cocconeis scute Hum C. G. E.
Cifdotella striata F. T. K.
Dte&ufta mlfra J. W. B.
Doryjihora amphiceros F. T. K.

-•'//(/" F. T. K.
Epithemia musculus F. T. K.
Eunotia monodon C. G. E.
Enot ton, \anmii umphioxys C. G.

E.
Erngill'.tria pacifica A. G.
Grammatophora marina F. T. K.
Byalodiscus franklinii C. G. E.
Hyalodiscvs ste/liger J. W. B.
i&/»ni« ««ecH« G G. E.

These are all the Bacillariacea? that I have detected up to this time.
There are several forms of Dictyocha, a genus of Radiolaria, present

Melnsirn sulcata C. G. E.
Xaricubt clovata A. < i.
Xavicida didyma C. G. E.
JVancM/a */«/,*/<■„ F. T. K.

A7/aW,;„ >•,>,,„„ F. T. K.
Xitzschia tryblwneUa II.
Plagiogramma gregoriana R. K.

G.
Pleurosigma angulata W. S.
Pleurosigma balticwn C. G. E.
Pyxillat balticaA.G.
Pyxidicula compressa J. W. B.
Rhabdonema arcuatum F. T. K.
Roicosphenia currata F. T. K.
Scoliopleura tumida L. R.
Schizonema fcdida J. E. S.
Stauroneis aspera C. G. E.
Stauroneis birostris C. G. E.
Stephanopyxis appendiculata C.

G. E.
Stephanopyxis turris J. R.
Surirella jebigeris F. W. L.
Surirella striatulu B. V.
%;iedra a#nw F. T. K.
Terpsinoe americana J. W. B.
Triceratium alternansi. W. B.
Triceratium favus C. G. E.
Triceratium macti latum F. T. K.
Triceratium punctatum T. B.

also. And what I consider a new genus of Bacillariaceie, which I have
called Ancile radiata. It is free and found rarely in the salt water in
Jamaica Bay, Rockaway and at Foleys, and South Beach, Staten Is-
land. But of this I shall speak hereafter. Mr. W. A. Terry says he
has found broken fragments of Brunia but this I myself have not seen,
although common in a deposit which I will also describe hereafter
taken at fifteen feet from the surface at Hoboken, N. J, I, another
day, visited Coney Island, N. Y., and searched for infusorial earth and
this time was fortunate enough to find it at Sheephead Bay, which is a
village just on the Long Island side of Coney Island Creek. It was a
grayish colored clay, one foot underneath the sand taken at low water,
about eight feet from the surface of the soil. At Canarsie Landing,
which is on Jamaica Bay between Coney Island and Auvergne, I did
not find the infusorial earth, but I was there a very short time. I did
find glacial phenomena and indication of the elevation of the coast, but
of those I shall not speak now as they are not microscopical. But the
finding of Bacillariaceie in the infusorial earth, as belonging to the
Upper Neocene period, is thus a fact, and the date of so finding is
worthy of record. Perhaps they will be found more inland on Long
Island hereafter. I have searched for them as far inland as the
city of Jamaica, but without result.

This layer is in the Upper Neocene, or perhaps the Plistocene, but
the placing of it definitely is extremely difficult if not impossible at
present, for on describing a fossil marine Diatomaceous deposit from
St. Augustine, Florida, Mr. Charles S. Boyer says (Bulletin of the
Torry Botanical Club, April, 1895, Vol. 22, No. 4, page 172) that it,
the St. Augustine deposit, "overlies an Eocene deposit and is beneath
the Plistocene " and that the Barbadoes deposit, which corresponds
partially with it, «« is now claimed to be Pliocene." In fact, as I have
already pointed out, the marine fossil layers of Bacillariaceie, be it from
Mors, Denmark; Simbirsk, Russia ; Sentz Peter, Austria; Oran, Algiers;
Moron, Spain ; Argentina ; Payta, Peru ; New York to Virginia, Cali-
fornia and New Zealand, including the Nicobar Islands, are Neocene,
be that Miocene or Pliocene.

—Arthur M. Edwards, M. D., Newark, N. J.

The succession of Glacial changes.-Evidenee has been accumu-
lating during the last few years in favor of the periodicity of glacial
action. Mr. Geikie recognized in Europe six distinct glacial epochs
separated by genial periods, making in all eleven glacial and inter-
glacial stages. For convenience he gives each of these horizons a
separate name. The climax of glaciation was reached in the third

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 2YI

stage, that is, the second glacial epoch, after which the cold stage
diminished continuously in importance. In like manner, the earliest
interglacial epoch seems to have been the most genial, each successive
epoch approximating more and more closely to existing conditions.

The American glacial deposits have been classified by Mr. Chamber-
lin, and an attempt made to correlate them with those of Europe. The
following table shows the tenti

European. American.

XL Upper Tubarian=Sixth Glacial Period.
X. Upper Forestian=Fifth Interglacial Period.

IX. Lower Turbarian = Fifth Glacial Epoch.
VIII. Lower Forestian=Fourth Interglacial Epoch. *
VII. Mecklenburgian=Fourth Glacial Epoch. Wisconsin.

VI. Neudeckian=Third Interglacial Epoch. Toronto.

V. Polandian=Third Glacial Epoch. Iowan.

IV. Helvetian=rSecond Interglacial Epoch Aftonian.

III. Saxonian=Second Glacial Epoch. Kansas Formation.

II. Norfolkian=First Interglacial Epoch.
I. Scanian=First Glacial Epoch.

The complex series subsequent to the Wisconsin formation have not
been sufficiently investigated to permit even a tentative correlation,
or indeed, to even designate the specific formations. This statement is
equally applicable to the formations deposited during the advancing
stages of the glacial period in America. (Journ. Geol., Vol. Ill,
1895.)

Geologic News. — Paleozoic. — Haworth proposes to divide tne
Coal Measures of Kansas into Upper and Lower, the division to be at
the top of the Pleasonton shales, which is at the bottom of the Erie lime-
stone. The division is based principally on paleontological evid< snoe.
In the author's study of tin- Kansas Coal Measures he finds that the
shales are of submarine origin, while the entire formation appears to
have been laid down during a period of gentle oscillations, with the
greatest movement to the west, and the least to the east. (Kan. Univ.
Quar., Vol. Ill, 1895.)

An Orthoceras shell of gigantic proportions has been found in the
Lower Coal Measures of Iowa, about forty miles from Des Moines.
This specimen is three inches in diameter and as it is of the same very
slender as the associated forms, it could not have been less than six feet
in length, and probably was even longer. The species is O.fauslerensis.
(Science, Jan., 1896.)

218 The American Naturalist. [March,

Mesozoic. — In examining the microscopic structure of the flint
nodules found in the Lower Cretaceous of Texas near Austin, Mr. J. A.
Merrill found traces of the following organisms : Foraminifera, sponges,
molluscs represented by the nacreous tissue of the shells, and fishes re-
presented by their scales. The fact that the delicate spines of the
sponge spicules, even to the most minute barb are perfectly preserved,
showing no trace of having been subjected to mechanical movement,
leads to the conclusion, that these flints result from the continuous
growth of sponges in situ. Mr. Merrill's study then confirms to this
extent the view taken by Prof. Sollas in his study of the nodules of the
English flint. (Bull. Harvard, Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XXVIII,
1895.)

Cekozoic— Mr. G. H. Ashley's studies of the Coast Range Mts. of
California lead him to the conclusion that the east and west ranges of
Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties were elevated at
about the end of the Miocene, while the ranges to the north with a uni-
form strike of northwest and southeast were elevated at or near the end
of the Pliocene. (Geol. Mag., Vol. Ill, 1895.)

Mr. A. M. Edwards reports Cenozoic clay containing marine forms
of diatomacete from Rockaway, Long Island. The clay deposit is dark
green or grey in color, and is capped by a fresh water deposit of white
clay. (Observer, Dec, 1895.)

Prof. H. L. Fairchild enumerates eight reasons for regarding the
Piunacles Hills, near Rochester, N. Y. as a kame series forming a part
of a frontal moraine. This is contrary to the views of Upham who
considers that they were deposited " in the ice-walled channel of a
stream of water," " open to the sky." (Amer. Geol., Vol. XVI, 1895.)

BOTANY.1

A recent paper on the relation between the Ascomycetes
and Basidiomycetes.2— In the October number of the Revue Myco-
logique under the heading " A Fungus simultaneously an Ascomycete
and Basidiomycete " appears a resume by R. Ferry of a portion of

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

'Read before the Botanical Sen inar of tl e L'niv, r-ity ■ i Nebraska, Dec. 21,

1896.] Botany. 219

a paper published in Memoires couronnes de VAcadcmie de Belgique,
1894 by Ch. Bommer. I have not seen the original paper, but as
Ferry gives quite a lengthy account of it and quotes the most
essential parts there seems to he sufficient basis for some remarks.

The fungi under consideration are Mylitta australis Berk, and Poly-
porus mylittce Cooke and Massee. The former is a large irregularly
spherical hypogeous fungous growth found in Australia and Van
Diemans' Land and called by the inhabitants " native bread." It was
first described by Berkeley in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist, 1839 and
referred to Mylitta, a doubtful genus established by Fries upon what
is now known to be a gall. Berkeley says he found no spores but
noticed that the ends of some of the hyphie were swollen. No one
seems to have examined the fungus for some time after Berkeley de-
scribed it. According to Ferry, Tulasne regarded it as a mycelial for-
mation analagous to Pietra fungifera of Battara and older writers,
which is now known to be the sclerotium stage of Polyporus tuberaster
Ft. Later Cooke and Massee3 referring to the plant incidentally call
it a sclerotium and Saccardo4 who examined it recently, says he ob-
served spores (?) which were globose, smooth, hyaline, plainly nucleate
and 14-15/i. in diameter. Such in brief was the knowledge of the
plant before the appearance of the paper under discussion.

The latter plant Polyporus mylittce C. & M. (fig. 1) was first described
in Grevillea l.c. It is a short stipitate plant with a tough pulviuate
pileus about 10 cm. broad, found growing on Mylitta australis in south-
ern Australia. The authors say in a note ; " A most interesting pro-
duction, undoubtedly the ultimate development of the sclerotium long
known as Mylitta australis Berk."

A year later Saccardo (1. c.) published a slightly different form of the
same fungus under the same name. After the description he adds:
"Growing on M itia aust '- from which it ipj.t-ar-t > originate. The
texture of the Polyporus and of Mylitta are about the same. They are
formed of intertwining filaments with frequent globose swellings consti-
tuting a soft or suberose white mass. It is very probable, therefore that
Mylitta i> the sclerotium form of the Polyporus and probably bears the
same relation to the Polyporus that Ceriomyces bears to Polyporus
biennis (Bull.) Fr."

Keferring now to Bommer's paper we shall give the essential
parts of Ferry's summary and translate the important parts of the
quotations from the author. Ferry first gives an account of Mylitta
australis as observed by Bommer.
•Cooke and Massee. Grev., 21 : 37. Dec., 1892.

* Saccardo. Hedw., 32 : 56. March and April, 1893.

•>._,,,

> Xntii

Specimens !

e compact, very hard and covered with a superficial
black crust. In full grown plants the interior is divided into a number
of irregular cavities. The walls of these cavities are formed of a white
tissue which under the microscope is seen to consist of thick -wn Ik-. 1
hyphse which are stained by Bismark brown (fig. 2 b.). These hyphse
are from 4-8//. in diameter. The cavities soon become filled with a
gelatinous substance of a horny consistency in which some thin, hyaline,
flexuose hyphse are found buried. These are not colored by Bismark
brown. Some of these hyphse have ovoid swellings 5-8//. long near
their ends which contain 1, 2 or 3 ovoid bodies with very thin walls.
Each body contains a kind of nucleus. Later these swellings (fig. 2 a.),
especially those near the periphery of the gelatinous mass increase in
size and contain only one ovoid body. This is brown, verrucose, very
refringent, presenting all the characters of a spore and is regarded
as such by Bommer. Since he finds what he considers asci and
spores he refers Mylitta australis to the Tuberaceae. He describes the

The asci (fig. 3) are analagous to
, being ovoid or spherical and 40-50//. in
j membrane is thin and encloses a single

1896.] Botany. 221

elongated hyaline spore 20-30,u. long which is either smooth (fig. 4),
verrucose (fig. 6) or echinulate (fig. 5)."

Nearer the centre of the gelatinous mass he says the asci are less
plainly differentiated and frequently contain no spores (fig. 7). He
submitted the fungus to chemical tests and found a great abundance of
cellulose, but no glycogen, a substance usually present in Tubers.

The ordinary structure of the plant is, according to the author, as
described above. As to its relation to Polyporus mylittce which is fre-
quently found growing from it, he says : , " A specimen from the British
Museum removes all doubt. This specimen like many others has a
central cavity on one of the walls of which is seen a pulvinate mas-
formed by the hymenium of Polyporus mylittce. This pulvinus does not
possess true pores, but only small hemispherical cavities on its surface
and numerous small rounded closed cavities in its interior which are
covered by the hymenium. The mass ef hyphas which forms the base
of this hymenium i> identical with the opaque white tissue which com-
poses the walls of the cavities of nearly mature examples of Mylitta.
Notwithstanding the presence of the pores and the thicker and more
crowded hyphse disposed after the manner of palisade tissue so char-
acteristic of the hymenium of ordinary Hymenomycetes, the specimen
is unfortunately sterile.

The particular disposition of the hymenium and the continuity and
identity which exists between it and the sterile tissue of MyHtta estab-
lishes the fact that there exists between Mylitta and the Polyporus an inti-
mate relation of the same nature as that which exists between the differ-
ent stages in the life history of many fungi. Hence it follows that a
carpophore of a Hymenomycete (Polyporus mylittce) is here in reality
the conidiophore of an Ascomycete (Mylitta australis). If this conclu-
sion is true in the present case, it ought to be admitted that this is the
relation which exists in general between the Basidiomycetes and
Ascomycetes." ! ! !

Such are the author's preposterous conclusions, and thus is the
autonomy of the Basidomycetes calmly disposed of.

One's first impulse is that this is a huge joke, but when you reflect
that it emanates from the Belgian Academy of Sciences and is ta( un-
accepted by Ferry one of the editors of the Revue Myeologique the
matter takes a serious aspect and it seems necessary to file a protest.

Ferry adds that DeBary long ago expressed the opinion that the
Basidiomycetes and Uredineae may be conidial forms of Ascomycetes.
The only statement I find in DeBary5 touching the point comes far

1 DeBary, Comp. Morph. and Biol, of Fungi (Eng. trans.), p. 341.

222 The American Naturalist. |March,

from endorsing such an idea. The reviewer says further that Brefeld
admits, theoretically, the existence of such fungi, but does not admit their
actual existence because he does not think that two reproductive bodies
of such complex development are able to be produced aimi
This idea Ferry regards as explaining the imperfect development
of the Polyporus in Bommer's plant, and he adds, with a profundity
equal to that of the author himself, that there are no existing characters
which permit the plain separation of conidial bearing basidia (conidio-
phores) from typical basidia. ,

As to the author's observations, if accurately made they are of course
deserving of consideration. We have not the space nor is it our pur-
pose to discuss them here. Were it not for the fact that the normal
form of Polyporus mylittce is frequently found growing on M„ 1 (ft,,, an I
is regarded by several observers as being genetically connected with it,
we might possibly disregard the supposed sterile hymeniumand accept
tuber, though several of the author's observations are at
variance with the characters of any known tuber. I am inclined for
the present, however, to accept Tulasne's opinion and regard Mylitta
as a sclerotium or a conidial stage of the Polyporus. As to the asci
they may be illusions or may belong to some parasitic fungus. This is
mere conjecture, however. These fungi are interesting forms and it is
hoped that their study may be continued until the author's observations
are confirmed or rejected. Accurate observations are always welcomed
by botanists, but gratuitous and unfounded conclusions and generaliza-
tions should find no place in botanical literature.— C. L. Shear.

Polyporaceae, Hydnacese, Helvellacese. — The undersigned
desires species of the above groups from all parts of North America for
the purpose of accumulating materials from which to monograph these
families. In sending specimens, good representatives are desired, not
mere fragments or abortive specimens. Where possible, indicate the
host on which the fungus grows if a lignatile species, and especially
in the case of fleshy or semi-fleshy forms, it is desirable to note the char-
acters in a fresh condition. Even the most common species are desired
in order to determine geographic distribution. When it is remembered
that not a single species of any of these groups has been reported from
more than half of our states and territories, it will be seen how great
the necessity of cooperation on the part of local botanists and botanical
collectors in order that this preliminary monograph may be as fairly
representative of our flora as possible.

Before sending large packages, a preliminary correspondence will be
desirable in. order that the package can be sent the cheapest way. So

be named for contributors and in all
cases full credit will be given.— Lucien M. Underwood, Auburn, Ala.

The Smut of Indian-Corn (Ustilago zeo2-mays).—lt has been
found out at the Indiana Experiment Station that the smut does not
attack the plant through the seed as has been supposed but like wheat
rust it starts in the leaves and stems, wherever the spores are carried by
the wind and find lodgment and sufficient moisture to enable them to
germinate. The spores will grow as soon as ripe, that is as soon as the
mass containing them turns black, and they will also retain their
vitality for a year or two in case conditions for growth are not favor-
able.

It is evident from this that neither the time of planting nor the pre-
vious condition or treatment of the seed will have any effect upon the
' ' i the crop. It is equally evident that meteorological
ive decided influence. Two things can be done to
decrease smut in corn. The growing crop can be sprayed with a suit-
able fungicide and the entrance of the smut into the plant prevented.
That this can be made effective is shown by experiments at the Indiana
station. The other, more convenient but less thorough, method, is to
gather and destroy the smut, and thus eventually rid the fields of it —
(Ball. Ind. Station.)

Antidromy and Crossfertilization.— I have been much inter-
ested in Dr. Macloskie's article on Antidromy in the November num-
ber of The Naturalist. It reminds me of some observations which I
made several years since while investigating the subject of croaifeitHi-
7ation. They will be found recorded in the same journal August, 1880.
A suggestion is ventured as to the possible cause of it in the flowers of
Saxifraga sarmentosa on pages 573 and 574 of that number. In that
case it seems to have little or no value in aiding crossfertilization.

Other cases, however, have been noted where it seems probable that
it may be of essential value in that direction, viz., in Solatium ros-
tratum and Cassia chamaecrista. They show lateral asymmetry, by
which the pistills on opposite sides, in successive flowers of a cluster.
These plants will be found described also in The American Natur-
alist, April, 1882.

It may be an item of general interest, also, that the features of the
flowers there pointed out are so remarkable as to have attracted the
attention of Darwin. He addressed a letter of congratulation and
inquiry to the writer with his characteristic candor and cordiality. It
may have been the last letter from that illustrious hand, for he lay cold

224 The American Naturalist [March,

in death before the missive had reached its destination. He called
attention also to the fact that he had observed similar asymmetry in
Mormodes ignea and had similarly used the terms " right handed " and
" left hTnded." The fact is published in his " Fertilization of Orchids."
—J. E. Todd.

University of South Dakota, Vermillion, S. D., Dee. 2, 1895.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Water Pores. — Dr. Anton Nestler contributes an interesting
" Kritische Untersuchungen uber die sogenannteu Wasserspalten "
(pp. 38, pi. 2) to Band LXI V, No. 3 of Nova Acta d. Ksl. Leop.- Carol.
Deutschen Akad. d. Naturforscher. The term " water pore " was intro-
duced by DeBary to designate a mechanism supposed to be distin-
guished from ordinary stomata by (1) Presence of liquid water, at
least at times, in the substomatic opening; (2) Rigid guard cells; (3)
Often very considerable differences in form and size; (4) Location near
the edge of the leaf in the teeth over the end of a vascular bundle. The
following subjects are considered in this paper : Previous literature ;
development of the water pores ; structure, number, and size ; rigidity
of the guard cells ; plants destitute of water pores. Dr. Nestler shows
that water pores originate from stomatic mother cells in the same way
as ordinary stomata (48 species of Ranunculus were examined and
also plants of many other families) ; that while water pores sometimes
exceed ordinary stomata in size they are quite as often of the same size
or smaller, and frequently show plain transitions into the latter; that
rigidity of the guard cells is not always present in the water pores nor
always absent in ordinary stomata; that water pores sometimes dis-
charge vapor of water ; and, finally, that the ordinary stomata some-
times, and probably often, excrete liquid water (over the whole upper
surface of the leaf in Vieia Faba).— Erwin F. Smith.

Biology of Smut Fungi. — The third part of Dr. Brefeld's Smut
Fungi (Heft XII of the Untersuchungen) contains 140 pages of quarto
text and 267 figures packed into 7 lithographic plates, the crowding
together of which makes difficult the comparison of text and figures.
All told 13 genera and 64 species are described, of which latter 22 are
reckoned as new. The germination of the smut spores is figured for
most of the species as well as described. The descriptions are long and
include a wealth of biological detail drawn from the behavior of the

5.] Vegetable Physology. 225

Two new genera are established : Ar-
1 species {Ustilago subinclusa and U.
oaryeis . separated from Ustilago by peculiarities of germination, and
Ustilaginoidea, a most peculiar genus, founded on Patouillard'a Tilletia
oryzce and on a new species found by Mdller on Setaria Crus-Ardece in
Brazil. Material for the study of the fungus on rice was obtained from
Barclay in India. This fungus which causes a swelling of the ovaries
of the rice plant to several times the normal breadth of the grain and
which has the external appearance of a smut, has nothing to do with
Tilletia, but seems to belong to some other group of fungi. Its prin-
cipal peculiarities are (1) the production of a large number of smut-
like spores on the outer part of the transformed grain, the interior of
the same being occupied by a hard mass of nonsporiferous hyphse sug-
gesting an immature sclerotium ; (2) germination in a manner totally
different from that of any other smut spores and resembling that of
some Ascomycetes, i. e. by the development of a much branched septate
mycelium which, in dilute Niihrlosung, bears succedaneously on the
ends of the hyphse, small, oval, colorless, nongermiuating conidia, and
in concentrated Nahrlosuug omits these conidia and develops in their
stead and also anywhere on the walls of thehyphse, sessile dark green-
ish-black, echinulate, thickwalled spores one in a place or sometimes two
together, one above the other. In the species received from Brazil
most of the dark spores had fallen off and the development of the
central mass of hyphae had proceeded a step further, being changed into
a true sclerotium with a black rind and an internal thickwalled white
pseudoparenchyma. Additional facts are promised as soon as these
sclerotia can be induced to germinate. The descriptions are followed
by a discussion of the relationship of the smuts to each other and to
other fungi. A full account of culture methods and some additional
notes on fungi are promised for Heft XIII to appear soon.

Incidentally Dr. Brefeld pays his compliments to the perfunctory
grinders out of species : "The accidental circumstance that the all
naming Patouillard has given to the fungus on rice the name TUletia
oryzce shows once more how worthless are the namings of a spore
material without the developmental history. The latter shows that in
Patouillard's supposed Tilletia oryzce we have to do not with a Tilletia
and not even with a smut fungus but with a form out of the highest
group of fungi." This is quite to the point. The labors of the " all
naming" mycologists of the past have filled this part of systematic
botany with a mass of rubbish mountain high, and still the brave work
goes on, exactly as if it were not known that fungi are exceedingly
16

226 The American Naturalist. [March,

variable organisms, or that it is possible by holding on to the old notion
of fixity of species to make half a dozen new ones out of the product of
a single spore by a little variation of the substratum, or even without
the latter device by drawing up separate descriptions of old and young
and large, small and medium sized spores. Is it not indeed time we
should have a reform and begin to reduce the number of species by
carefully studying those which have been badly described (by far the
larger number), learning their life history and the extent of their
variability under ordinary conditions, and throwing out the synonyms?
This method carefully applied would unquestionably reduce the number
of so-called species of fungi and bacteria nearly or quite one-half.
This must necessarily form a large part of the work of the next genera-
tion of mycologists, and no one familiar with the ground can doubt
that the task of properly classifying these plants would be immensely
easier if half the descriptions had never been written. — Ebwin F.
Smith.

Function of Anthocyan. — The following is an abstract of a short
paper by Prof. Leopold Kny, of Berlin, Zur physiologische Bedeutung
des Anthocyans, published in Atii del Congresso Botanico internazion-
ale di Oenova, 1892 (pp. 135-144). The name anthocyan has been
given to a coloring matter occurring in the vegetative and floral organs
of many plants in numerous transitional shades from red through
violet to blue. It occurs dissolved in the cell sap and is sensitive to
acids and alkalies, changing from one shade of color to another as they
are used. It is probable that several different substances have been
included under this term, for while in most plants these colors appear
only on exposure to light, especially bright sunshine, in others they ap-
pear just the same in total darkness, e. g. in the perianth of Tulipa ges-
neriana, Crocus vermis, and Scilla siberka, the inner tissues of the root
of the red beet, and the inner leaves of the red cabbage. In case of
the floral organs anthocyan undoubtedly serves to make them conspic-
uous to insects, etc., but for the most part it can have no such function
in the vegetative organs. Its use to these parts of the plant has been
explained in three different ways. (1) When young leaves and stems
either from seedlings or from buds take on a distinct red or violet color
and subsequently lose it wholly or in part, it is but a step to the hypo-
thesis that this color has been developed for the protection of the
chlorophyll from injury by light. It is explained in this way by Ker-
ner von Marilaun. On this supposition, it is difficult to understand
how many young shoots get along without it, e. g. species of Iris, the
young leaves of which are bright green. As proof, Kerner makes

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 227

prominent the abundance of anthocyan in many alpine plants as well
as the fact that when a species grows on the plains as well as in the
mountains it is in the latter locality that the vegetative and floral
organs show an inclination to become red with anthocyan. (2) In
cases where the cells holding the anthocyan are on the under side of
the leaf, the upper side being pure green (Cyclamen europceum, Hydro-
charis Morsus ranee) the lightscreen hypothesis naturally falls to the
ground. Here there is every reason to believe, according to Kerner,
that the light rays which would otherwise pass out of the plant and be
lost are converted into heat rays in passing through the cells contain-
ing anthocyan. In conformity with this hypothesis we find that the
leaves of trees and shrubs which are lifted up from the soil and have
other green leaves below to catch the filtered light, are never violet on
their under surface, while, in very leafy under shrubs, only the lower-
most leaves next the ground are provided with anthocyan. Another
indication of the warming influence of anthocyan is its abundance in
alpine plants, as already mentioned, and its frequent development in
the perennial leaves of other plants during the winter season (Semper-
vivtim tectorum, Ligustrum vulgare, Hedera helix.

the leaves being enabled thereby, in sunny winter days, to break up
carbon dioxide even at relatively low temperatures. (3) There are,
however, a series of facts going to show that the preceding hypotheses
are not sufficient to explain all cases. On full grown shoots of many
herbs and woody plants the sunny side of the internodes frequently be-
comes red while the opposite side remains nearly or quite pure green
(Salix specie-. m, and many other plants). The

same difference is frequently observed on petioles, the red color being
not rarely prolonged into the midrib and its branches. These facts
lead to the conclusion that the screen of anthocyan may have some use
in connection with the breaking up and translocation of plastic sub-
stances through the vascular system. This is also indicated by the fact
that when the roots of willows and other plants grow down from a bank
into the water and are subject to direct sunlight they become red on
the exposed surface. Pick considers the anthocyan screen as a means
of bringing about the outward movement of starch in large quantities
without seriously disturbing the assimilatory activity of the chloro-
phyll bodies. Some effort has been made to demonstrate this third
view, but so far as known, no one has tried to establish the first two by
means of experiment. The following experiments were, therefore, un-
dertaken to fill this gap. (1) Does anthocyan protect chlorophyll from
the destructive action of light t Owing to the manifest difficulty of deal-
ing directly with the chlorophyll bodies the experiments were made

228 The American Naturalist. [March,

with an alcoholic solution derived from grass leaves. Two beakers
were filled with this green solution and placed in tin chambers with
blackened inner walls but having on one side a quadrangular opening
with strongly projecting edges for the entrance of light. In front of
each opening was placed a parallel walled glass vessel 196 millimeters
high, 93.5 mm. wide and 40 mm. thick. Into one of these vessels red
beet juice was poured and into the other white beet juice, both filtered
and of the same specific gravity. The result was decisive. The light
which passed through the anthocyan solution discolored the chlorophyll
much less rapidly than that which passed through the colorless solution.
(2) Does anthocyan convert the light rays into heat rays ? Experiments
were made with the foliage of green and red leaved varieties of the fol-
lowing species, viz. Fagus sylvatica, Corylus avellana, Berberis vulgaris,
Acer platanoides, Brassica oleracea, Dracama ferrea, Canna indica; with
decoctions of white and red beets ; and with the petals of a white and
a red rose. Exactly weighed quantities of the leaves, etc., were placed
in the parallel walled glass vessels already mentioned, thermometers
were then plunged into the center of the mass, and the vessels were ex-
posed to the action of direct sunlight filtered through a nearly saturated
alum water screen 4 cm. thick (to absorb the heat rays). In most of
the species (Dracaena ferrea and Carina indica gave contradictory
results) the ability of anthocyan to convert light rays into heat rays
seems to have been demonstrated conclusively. In one to two minutes
in favorable cases there was a rise of temperature in the vessels contain-
ing the red leaves, the maximum difference amounting to as much as
4°C. As soon as the sun was covered by a cloud there was a notice-
able fall of temperature in both vessels, and when the cloudiness lasted
10 to 20 minutes the temperature became the same or nearly the same
in both vessels. Subsequently an effort was made to determine whether
the different light rays of the solar spectrum behaved differently. For
this purpose three vessels containing, in turn, red leaves of several species
of plants were exposed to direct light under the following conditions ;
the light entering one vessel was filtered through the alum solution, that
entering another was filtered through a screen of sulfuric-copper- oxide-
ammonia, that entering the third was passed through a solution of bi-
chromate of potash, it having been determined in advance spectrosco-
pically that the two colored screens divided the spectrum in about the
middle of the green. Under these conditions the rise of temperature
was less behind the blue screen than behind the orange one, and less
behind the latter than behind the alum screen. A consideration of the
third supposed function of anthocyan is left by Dr. Kuy for a subse-
quent paper. — Erwin F. Smith.

ZOOLOGY.
A posthumous paper on Myxospridia by M. Prosper Th£loh an has
recently appeared prefaced with a short account of the authors's
scientific career by E. G. Balbiani. The Memoir, intended as a thesis
for the degree of Doctor of Science, while complete in the essen-
tial parts, lacks the final chapter in which the author intended to
indicate the relations of the different genera and families of the Myxos-

Briefly stated, Myxosporida are parasitic Sporozoa found living in
certain fishes, batrachians and reptiles. They have also been observed
living in various arthropods, notably spiders and crustaceans. Certain
families are limited to vertebrates host : Myxobolidie and Chloromyx-
idse. It is to the latter forms that the author devotes his paper.

It has long been known that the Myxosporida of the vertebrates
assume two forms; one, a small ameboid body swimming free in the
liquid which contained in certain organs, chiefly the gall and urinary
bladders, and a second form which is found distributed in compact

may be harmless to the host, or on the other hand, give rise to grave
disorders, resulting in the death of the animal which they have
invaded.

The free swimming species are variable in form, the most common
one being that of an elongated cone the base of which corresponds to
the anterior extremity ; others are almost spherical. It is, however,
difficult to decide upon a definite species form, since each individual
exhibits such extraordinary polymorphism. The organisms found in
the tissues are generally spherical.

Ordinarily these parasites are colorless, but yellow ones have been
seen, and a few green ones are reported.

In dimensions, as in form, there is great diversity. The free swim-
ming species are from 10 or 12,*. in diameter to 5 mm. in diameter.

Reproduction is accomplished by sporulation, and, probably, also
by fission. The protoplasmic body of the Myxosporida is plainly dif-
ferentiated into a peripheral zone, ectoplasm, surrounding the central
sarcode, endoplasm. The former functions as a protection for the
latter and, also is capable of putting out pseudopodia which act as
organs of locomotion or fixation. These pseudopodia are localized in
certain species, in others they appear at random. They take no part in
the phenomena of nutrition.

The endoplasm of young individuals appears homogeneous, but in
older ones there are found, in some cases, certain products of differentia-

230 The American Naturalist.

tion, among which the author distinguished, fatty globular masses and
rhombohedral crystals of hjematoidin. In others, there are vacuoles,
containing protoplasmic matter which differs from the rest of the
endoplasm. It is in the endoplasm also that the nuclear elements are
found, often in great number, around which the spores develop. The
author traces the development of these spores, describing minutely
the various stages of growth. Upon arriving at maturity they remain
enclosed in the endoplasm for a varying length of time. When set
free it seems to be connected with the destruction of the protoplasm
which persists in the mother organism after the formation of the spores.
The free-swimming species are expelled from the host either with the
faeces or the urine, but the ones imprisoned in the tissues continue
where they are until set free by the death and subsequent decay of the
tissues of the host. The spores rarely germinate in the old host, never
in any exterior medium, but stay dormant until chance provides them
a new host.

As to the food habits of the Myxosporida, ML Thelohan observa-
tions are to the effect that they imbibe nourishment from the fluids in
which they live. In no case did he see food particles ingested.

The following classification of the Myxosporida was proposed by
the author in 1892, and his subsequent researches confirms the distin-
guishing characters.

r no vacuoles in f 2 capsules. I. Myxidiidse.
the plasma. \ 4 capsules. II. Chloromyxida?.
form I

pyriform, a single polar cap-

able with iodine, at the

5 species; Chloromyxidse has 1
, 14 species ; Glugeidse 3 genera,
lb' species.

The Segmentation of the Hexapod Body.— In a recent

paper1 giving the results of work upon the early stages of certain of

the Orthoptera, Dr. Heymons gives the whole number of segments in

the Hexapod body as twenty-one, of which six form the head ; three, the

1 Anhang. Abh. K. prenss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1895.

1896.] Zoology. 231

thorax ; and twelve, the abdomen. At some time during the develop-
ment of the insect, appendages are present upon all except the first,
third and twenty-first segments. The frons, clypeus, labrum and com-
pound eyes are parts of the first segment. The second segment bears
the antennae, the fourth the mandibles, and the fifth and sixth the two
pairs of maxillae. The hypopharynx does not belong in the series of
appendages but is formed by a folding of the ventral portions of the
fourth, fifth and sixth segments. The cerci, contrary to the views of
some authors, are the true appendages of the twentieth (eleventh ab-
dominal) segment. Considerable emphasis is laid upon the similarity
between the first and twenty-first segments, in their relations to the
openings of the alimentary canal, in being free from appendages, in
the lateral position of their ganglia and in the relative changes of the
appendages of the adjoining segment. Concerning the position of the
genital openings, Heymons reiterates his former opinion that they may
belong primitively to the tenth segment, their position in the ninth
being a secondary development. — G. M. Winslow.

The Coxal Glands of Thelyphonus caudatus.— In a brief
note in the Zoologischer Anzeiger,2 Dr. Theo. Adensamer adds a few
facts to complete Sturany's work on the Arachnoidea. The two glands
occur between the gastric coeca and the muscles, and extend as un-
branched and unlobed sacs to the abdomen. From the anterior end of
each extends a simple duct to the coxae of the first pair of legs through
which they open. A thin chitinous intima was distinguished in the
ducts. An histologically differentiated portion of the gland corre-
sponding to Lankester's medullary substance and Sturany's Marksub-
sanz was not found.

The following table shows the location of the openings of the glands
in the several groups :

Limulut, openings in the 5th appendages.

Scorpio, openings in the 3d pair of legs = 6th appendages.

Pseudoscorpionidea, openings in the ? = ?

Thelyphonus, openings in the 1st pair of legs = 3d appendages.

Araneida:

a. Tetrapneumous, openings in the 3d pair of legs = 5th append-
ages.

b. Dipneumous, openings in the 1st pair of legs = 3d appendages.
Phalangida, openings in the 3d pair of legs = 5th appendages.
Acarina, openings in the ? pair of legs = ? — F. C. K.

* XVIII, p. 424.

232 The American Naturalist.

[M=»

Cross Fertilization and Sexual Rights and Lefts Among
Vertebrates.— The November number of this journal, page 1012,
under the title " Sexual Rights and Lefts," called attention to sexual
peculiarities I had recently discovered in certain Cyprinodonts. At
that time no satisfactory explanation of the purpose or origin of the
strange conditions offered itself. At present I would like to note in
these pages what upon further consideration appears to me the best
solution of the problem. Additional study has satisfied me that the
sexual conditions in the genus Anableps prevent close " inbreeding,"
or, in other words, they secure cross fertilization. What in certain
plants is attained by means of short stamens with the long ones is in
these fishes realized by sinistral and dextral males and females. This
is a view in the case of Anableps that brings us in face of probable
benefit from the novel features, and of the possible causes of their evo-
lution. As bearing on the inception of the dextral and the sinistral
peculiarities we must consider the habit possessed by so many of these
fishes of swimming in pairs, side by side, a habit that induced Professor
Agassiz to name one of the genera Zygonectes, that is yoke swimmers.
The acquisition of more or less of a dextral or of a sinistral tendency
would not be at all unnatural in each of a pair habitually swimming
side by side in the same relative positions to one another. It may be
that cross fertilization will afford an explanation of conditions some-
what similar among molluscs.

While writing of matters concerning the publication " The Cyprino-
donts," it should be mentioned, as kindly pointed out to me by Dr. A.
Smith Woodward of the British Museum, that the name of one of the
new genera, Glaridodon, was recently preoccupied among fossils, and
it may be well here to discard that name (p. 40) for the term Glari-
dichthys.—S. Gakman, Cambridge, Mass.

Abnormal Sacrum in an Alligator.— Among a lot of young
alligators procured from New Orleans for the University of Chicago one
in which the skeleton was prepared, showed a very peculiar variation
in the pelvic region there being three instead of two sacral vertebras.

There are as usual 24 presacral vertebrse. The 25th has the sacral
ribs inclined backwards and becoming slender. The 26th has strong
thick ribs, and the 27th, the first caudal in normal specimens, has also
well developed ribs articulating strongly with the ilium. The 27th is
seemingly biconvex. The first chevron is attached between the 28th and
29th and is, therefore, in the normal position as regards the serial num-
ber of the vertebrse, but is attached to the first vertebrse the last sacral
instead of the second. The whole pelvis has migrated backwards one

vertebrse, the first true sacral tending to become a lumbar and the first
caudal has become a sacral. The two side are strikingly symiu. tn< :il.
The figures giving views from above and below are natural size and
include the 24th-28th a

The other known cases of variation in the sacrum of Crocodilia are,
as far as I am aware, as follows : Rheinhardt1 examined 11 specimens
and found 3 abnormal.

1. Alligator scler ops Schn. : Last lumbar become a sacral ; 23 pre-

2. Croeodllus acutus: 3 sacrals, 3 plane-convex, 1st caudal concave-
convex and bearing a chevron, thus the first caudal has become a saera^
23 presacrals.

3. Crocodilm acutus: First caudal has become a sacral, 24 pre-

Baurs reported two cases.

1. Gavialis gangeticus : 25 presacrals. One intercalated between
the 9th and 10th.

2. Alligator mississippiensis : Last lumbar become a sacral, showing
on one side a small sacral rib and which does not reach ilium. 23 pre-

Baur3 reported three cases.

1. Crocodilus acutus: A specimen in the museum at Cambridge,
Eng. shows on the right side of the 25th vertebra a strong and separate
rib, on the left side the rib is smaller and coossified with the centrum.
The 26 shows typical sacral ribs. The 27th shows on the left side a

1 (Anomalier i Krydsvirvlerne hos Krokodelerne, Copenhagen, 1873, and Sur
les an .'i ili« - <les vert, bres -a, r.'e- . he/ les crocodilieus. Jul. de Zoologie T. Ill,
No. 4. Paris, 1874.)

'Zoologischer Anzeiger, IX Jahrg., No. 238, 1886. Osteolog. Not. iiber
Eeptilen.

3 (Zoolog. Anz. XII, Jahrg., No. 306, 1889. Kevision meiner Mittheilungen
in Zoologisher Anzeiger, mit Nachtragen.)

234 The American Naturalist. [March,

strong free rib and on the right side a weaker rib but free. The 28th
biconvex.

2. Crocodilus acutus: Two specimens in the Royal museum at
Leiden have only 23 presacrals. — E. C. Case.

The Polar Hares of Eastern North America, with De-
scriptions of New Forms.— In 1819 Captain John Ross, in the
fourth Appendix of the second (octavo) edition of his " Voyage of Dis-
covery " in Baffin's Bay, described a hare which he procured in Baffin
Land, in latitude 73° 37'.

To this animal he gave the name " Lepus arcticus Leach," stating at
the end of his description that " Dr. Leach thinks it to be very dis-
tinct from the common White Hare of Scotland (Lepus albus Brisson)
and equally so from the Lrpu< variabilis, Pallas." Ross then makes a
reference to "Appendix No. Y," of the same volume, which he evi-
dently supposed would contain Leach's description of the same animal.
Leach's chapter on the " New Species of Animals " obtained by Ross,
however, does not come in appendix number five but is part of the same
appendix in which Ross' description appears. It is on page 170,
while Ross' description is on page 151. Leach evidently described
the same specimen which Ross had in hand, but gave it the name
Lepus glacialis. Owing to its precedence in paging, Dr. J. A. Allen1
rightly adopts the name arcticus for the American Polar Hare, glaci-
alis of Leach becoming a synonym.

The question has been raised by my friend, Mr. Outram Bangs,
whether Ross, and not Leach, should have credit for the name arcticus.
We may justly infer from Ross' description that he intended that
Leach should have this credit and that he published it with such in-
tention. He must have consulted with Leach about its relations
to the European and Scottish Hares and quotes Leach in his diagno-
sis, using, without doubt, the specific name then suggested by Leach.
The fact that Leach gave it another name does not affect the status of
the one given by Ross, nor weaken Leach's claim to it. From the
present custom, not definitely formulated in our American Ornitholo-
gist's Union's canons of nomenclature, I see, however, no alternative
but to call the Baffin Land Hare, I^epus arcticus Ross.2

'Mon. N. Amer. Rod., 1877, p. 288.

% Some authorities prefer that sole credit for the name of a species be given to the
person to whom the original publisher of that name ascribes the origin of the name,
writing it in this cu.-e Lepm arctiew Leach. The A. O. IT., with one (or two ?) ex-
ceptions, adopts the reverse rule in their check list of birds, and would make it
read Lepus arcticus Ross. Neither method does justice either to the public or to

1896.] Zoology.

Dr. J. A. Allen (1. c.) concludes that the American Polar
not specifically separable from the European L. timidus (~n
Auct.), and the deficient material which he had for exa:
that time probably justified such a verdict as the safest one, especially
when we consider the standard of species and varieties adopted at that
date by American mammalogists. Through the kind liberality of
Messrs. G. Brown Goode and F. W. True of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and of Mr. Outram Bangs of Boston, I have been favored to ex-
amine, in connection with the specimens in the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, an unusually large series of skins and skulls
of the Polar Hares of America and northwestern Europe. The results
of this study, so far as they relate to the Polar Hares of eastern North
America, and Scandinavia may be summed thus briefly. —

1. Lepus timidus L. Scandinavian Polar Hare.

Type locality (hypothetically restricted), Southern Sweden.

Nasals nearly or quite reaching to anterior vertical plane of pre-
maxillaries. Posterior frontal swelling on a plane with the postorbital
processes. Upper incisor with transverse sectional diameter greater than
the longitudinal diameter ; the chord of the arc of its exposed surface
(with skull, minus mandibles, resting on a plane horizontal surface)
is vertical ; the radius of the arc described by the incisors is one-eighth
(tVtt) of the basilar length of skull ; their inner faces indented by a
deep broad sulcus and they are rooted on the premaxillaries at or
slightly anterior to the inferior maxitfo-premaxillary sutures. Roots of
lower incisors extending to base of pm. 1.

Summer pelage ; above blackish brown, sprinkled with gray ; ears
darker, but not black, tail white, dark above.

2. Lepus arcticus " Leach," Ross. Baffin Land Polar Hare.

Type locality, lat. 73° 37', northern Baffin Land, southeast of Cape

Size larger (?) than timidus, with relatively smaller and wider skull
and shorter ears. Skull of the same type as timidus, with the follow-
ing differences: Nasals, rostrum and incisive foramina relatively

those personally interested. I suggested (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.. Phila . l^o, p.
:;m.V). that both the publishing and tb, ■■ >rity for such

names should be indicated. My friend, V. ed an improve-

ment on mv formula which I heartily endorse, viz.. that instead of " Rm>a dam-
;t,-,n* iw". M-i.. S.,nii.. Latr." :1. <■ .. it -liould read H>i,.n .-'omttans " Bosc.,"
Sonn. & Latr., and the Baffin Land Hare would read Lepus arcticus " Leach,"
Ross. This comports far better with our motto that, " Zool

236 The American Naturalist. [March,

shorter and broader, the incisive foramina never reaching to middle of
pm. 1. Palatal bridge longer than width of postpalatal fossa. Supra
orbital processes of frontals deeply notched anteriorly, upraised and
widely flaring. Frontals, at their posterior constriction, remarkably
tumid, their anterior plane greatly depressed.

Summer pelage (fide Ross and Leach (1. c.) and Sabine3), white,
" The back and top of the head are sprinkled with blackish brown
hair which is banded with white, the sides of the neck are covered
with hairs of the same color, interspersed with white. The extreme
tips of the ears are tipped with black." — Leach. " In some of the full-
grown specimens, killed in the height of summer, the hair was a gray-
ish brown towards the points but the mass of fur beneath still remained
white, the face and front of the ears were a deeper gray." — Sabine.

In south Baffin Land, as evidenced by a specimen from Cumberland
Gulf, the type form intergrades into the following subspecies :

3. Lepus arcticus bangsii Rhoads, subsp. nov. Newfoundland Polar
Hare. Type locality, Codry, Newfoundland. (Diagnosis as given
below.)

4. Lepus grcenlandicus Rhoads, sp. nov. Greenland Polar Hare.
Type locality, Robinson's Bay, Greenland. (Diagnosis as given be-
low.)

Lepus arcticus bangsii,* subsp. nov. Newfoundland Polar Hare.

Type, Ad. ? , No. 3752 ; Co!, of E. A. & O. Bangs. Collected by
Ernest Doane at Codry, Newfoundland, Aug. 3d, 1895.

Description. — Size equal to L. timidus L., of Southern Sweden, with
shorter ears, shorter and broader skull, nasal bones and incisive fora-
mina, weaker dentition and narrower frontal breadth anterior to the
supraorbital processes.

Adult summer pelage : entire back and upper sides, including neck,
shoulders and outer surfaces of thighs, uniform dark grizzled gray,
faintly suffused with tawny. A pinch of hairs from near middle of
back shows the following color pattern : under-fur fine, tawny-white
basally, becoming tawny at distal end ; over-fur white or black at base
in about equal proportions, the coarser black-based hairs black
throughout, the finer white-based hairs with terminal half black, in-
terrupted by a subterminal band of white or pale tawny. Lower head

3 Suppl. Appx., Parry's Voy., 1824, pp. 187-188.

4 Named for Mr. Outrara Bangs, who has done so much in making known the
mammal fauna of Newfoundland, and who has there collected the finest study-
series of Polar hares that can be found in this country.

1896.] Zoology. 237

(including chin), lower neck, nape, forebreast to forelegs, lower sides,
edges of thighs and rump, dark plumbeous gray, flecked with very
long, slender, white hairs. Lower breast, belly, vent ami tail white,
bordered by a nearly clear plumbeous edging which separates the ven-
tral from the abdominal regions and joins the dark rump along the
inside of thighs. Inner anterior border of hams, sides of hind feet and
toes, and lower surfaces of forelegs, white, thinly intermixed with leaden
hairs. Outer surfaces of fore and hind legs and superior surfaces of
the feet, tawny gray. Ears and space between them, black, becoming
grayish at base and with a narrow whitish outer posterior margin from
near base to tip. Upper head, including cheeks and nose, grizzled
buffy gray, appreciably lighter than the gray shades of the back.
Eyelids whitish, edged with black. Whiskers weak and sparse, white
and black in equal proportions, the longer black hairs tipped with
white.

Winter pelage (No. 1187, Ad. 9 , Col. of E. A. & O. Bangs. Bay
St. George, Newfoundland, Mar. 1, 1895) : Entire pelage, exclusive of
ears, white. Extreme tips of ears black, the median anterior borders
of ears grayish.

Measurements (of type). — Total length, 626 millimeters ; tail verte-
brae, 63 ; hind foot, 160 ; ear (from crown), 85. Skull : total length,
97 ; basilar length, 76 ; greatest breadth, 48.2 ; anterior frontal con-
striction, 23 ; length of i; ; >, 40 ; greatest breadth
of nasals, 22 ; alveolar breadth of upper incisors, 9 ; greatest length of
mandible, 76 ; greatest width of mandible, 47.

The above measurements both of body and skull are a very fair aver-
age of the dimensions of five adults taken for Mr. Bangs in Newfound-
land by the same collector, Mr. Ernest Doane. Summer specimens
from northern Labrador are inseparable from those taken in the same
month in Newfoundland. A summer series from Great Slave Lake
may show the existence of another race of ardicus in that region.
Lepus grcenlandicus sp. nov. Greenland Polar Hare.

Tpye, No. 1486 ad. S . Col. of Acad. Nat. Sciences, Philadelphia.
Collected by Chas. E. Hite at Robinson's Bay, North Greenland, Aug.
2, 1892, for the Peary Relief Expedition.

Description. — Size larger than L. timidus L. of Sweden, with radi-
cally distinct coloration and incisor dentition.

Adult summer pelage, white, suffused with light tawny and sparingly
sprinkled with gray on upper head and ears. Back with scattering
black and gray hairs. Tip of ears black. Tail, sides and lower sur-

238 The American Naturalist. [March,

faces pure white. Half grown young in July and August like adult,
but darker, owing to greater abundance of colored hairs and the leaden
under fur. Appearances of young and old at a distance at all seasons,

Winter pelage, pure white throughout, except the tips of ears, which
are black.

Skull with rostral portion anterior to pnU, relatively much longer
and more attenuate, owing to the outward prolongation of the pre-
maxiiraries and the small calibre of incisors. Upper and lower incis-
ors very long, produced and slender, their transverse diameter being
less than the longitudinal. Upper incisors describe the arc of a circle
whose radius is one-fifth (T2«&) the basilar length of the skull. The
chord of their exposed arcs (with cranium, minus mandibles, resting
on a plane horizontal surface) forms an angle of 45° to the horizontal
plane. Face of upper incisors multistriate, the normal sulcus peculiar
to all other members of the genus being so filled with dentine in adult
grcenlandiom as to obliterate the depression, presenting an even,
rounded, enameled contour marked with three minute striae.

Roots of upper incisors based on the maxillaries and reaching back
nearly half way from inferior maxillo-premaxillary sutures to pm. 1.
Roots of lower incisors extending to the base of pm. 2.

Measurements (of type taken from dry mounted skin, relaxed) : ear,
from crown, 100 millimeters ; hind foot, 145 ; tail vertebrae (dry), 50 ?

Skull : total length, 100 ; basilar length, 84.5 ; greatest breadth, 50 ;
anterior frontal constriction, 22.5 ; length of nasals (longest diagonal),
41 ; greatest breadth of nasals, 20.5 ; alveolar breadth of upper incis-
ors, 8.5 ; greatest length of mandible, 76 ; greatest width of mandible,
48.

Five skins, seven skulls, and one skeleton, all from North Green-
land, comprise the Academy series of Greenland Hares, and all con-
firm the peculiar characters of this species as above given. I regret
that more complete body measurements are not available. Average
adult measurements of ear and hind foot are 100 millimeters for the
former and 145 for the latter. The total length of an adult skeleton
(ligamentous) is 519 millimeters, measured as in the flesh, from tip of
nose to end of tail vertebrae.

It is possible that Spitzbergen and Iceland Hares are of the same
type as those of Greenland. None of these have come into my hands.
The Bavarian, Swiss, Scottish, Irish and Siberian representatives of
timidus are also likely to prove separable, at least into definable races,
already named. From what is known of Linnaeus at the time of writ-

1896.] Entomology. 239

ing his tenth edition of the System, it is most fitting that the Polar
Hare of Southern Scandinavia should be made the type of the timidus
group, the Swedish Hares being those which would most naturally em-
body and form the source of his original diagnosis.

The writer is now preparing a more compendious revision, with illus-
trations, of the New World representatives of the Lepus timidus group,
which will probably appear in a future number of the Proceedings of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

—Samuel N. Rhoads.

ENTOMOLOGY.1

On Certain Geophilidse Described by Meinert.— The Chilo-
poda of the Museum of Comparative Zoology were studied by Dr.
Meinert, and the results published in a paper entitled " Ifytietpoda
Musei Cantabrigensis."2 Many new species were described, but as no
figures were given, identification is not in all cases easy, although the
descriptions are of considerable length. With reference to the Geo-
philidse, at least, there are certain misleading statements and unfortunate
omissions. During a recent visit to Cambridge I had the pleasure of
a very brief examination of the types of several of Dr. Meinert's species,
and some long-standing curiosity was satisfied.

Oeophilus georgianus Meinert.

According to Dr. Meinert this species has but a single pleural pore.
For some years past I have had specimens from the South which agreed
well with the description of this species, but had two pores. As this
character is a very constant one, my determination was not made with
confidence. The type of georgianus has, however, two large pores on
each side concealed under the last ventral plate, so that the Roomaly ii
disposed of. The pores are similar in structure and location to those of
G. rubens.

Geophilus cephalicus Wood.

The specimens described by Meinert, and previously by Wood as
cephalicus belong to G. rubens Say. I have examined the type in the
British Museum. It is the most common geophilid in the northeastern
states.

Geophilus urbicm Meinert.

No ventral pores could be made out. The sterna are uneven and
the whole animal is very hairy. The form of the body, the armature

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.
'Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. XXI, pp. 161-233 (1885).

240 The American Naturalist. [March,

of the prehensorial legs and other strong similarities leave little doubt
that this is a member of the genus Escaryus, as was conjectured when
that genus was erected.3 The anal legs were also strongly curved under
as has been the case with all the specimens of Escaryus yet observed.
That the differences enumerated between E. phyllophilus and E. urbieus
can be maintained, is doubtful, for the Cambridge specimen is in rather
poor condition, so that some of the characters ascribed by Dr. Meinert
may easily prove to have been accidental.

Scolioplanes robustus Meinert.

The locality of this species was not known. I have collected what
is evidently the same in central New York and southern Pennsylvania,
and am unable to separate it from Sager's Strigamia fulva, the probable
type of which I have seen in the Museum of the Academy of Natural
Sciences at Philadelphia. The only difference between it and bothrio-
pus and robustus seems to be that of size. The large specimens always
show evidences of good living. The creatures are also constructed so
as to be capable of considerable distention, besides being variable in
size and number of legs, even in the same localities.
Scolioplanes parviceps Meinert.

The label in this bottle, probably in Meinert's handwriting is
"Scolioplanes parviceps n. sp." The bottle also contains a label
marked " Strigamia bidens Wood, N. A. loc. ? " It is evidently to this
label that Dr. Meinert refers when he says, (p. 226). " A specimen,
which was said to be a type of Dr. Wood, was labeled ' Strigamia bidens
Wood.' " To thus rename a type specimen seems a remarkable pro-
ceeding, especially when the new name proposed has already been used
in the same genus. Yet this is probably what Dr. Meinert proposed to
do, for Mr. Henshaw kindly showed me a list of the collection, care-
fully made out in Dr. Meinert's handwriting, and in this the species is
again given as new. That it did not so appear when the paper was
printed, may have been the work of some American editor who knew
of Wood's species and naturally supposed that the same was intended
by Meinert.

Wood's parviceps is a Californian species, while bidens is found in
the East. I have collected it in the vicinity of Washington. I had a
specimen of parviceps at Cambridge with me to compare, but the differ-
ence was evident. There was no other specimen of bidens at hand, but
the size, form of the body and other characters agree well with the east-

! Proc. U. S. Nat Museum XIII, p. 394 (1890).

1896.] Entomology. 241

Scolioplanes longicornis Meinert.

This species was looked upon by its author as the probable type of a

new genus. The prehensorial claws are very long and slender, and

the basal tooth very small. That it represents a new genus is well-nigh

certain, but it would be idle to name it until drawings can be made.

Scolioplanes exul Meinert.

This is a large specimen with a strong general resemblance to large
males of fidvns (robustus). The last pleurae are without pores except
close under the edge of the last ventral plate, where there is a large
porose cavity. Anal legs with the claw minute, almost rudimentary,
in this offering a strong contrast to the other American species known
to me. The anal legs are also very robust, much stouter than a
Califomian specimen of parviceps.

Mecistocephalus breviceps Meinert.

The type specimen is minus the cephalic lamina and antennae. There

is another specimen labeled breviceps, but with no locality given. If

the type was really collected at Nantucket the species must be very

rare or local, for it seems not to have been found elsewhere.

Mecistocephalus heros Meinert.

It has been conjectured by Mr. Pocock that this species should be
added to the long list of synonyms of punctifrons. I have never exam-
ined carefully authentic specimens of punctijrons, but the form of the
prehensorial legs in the Cambridge specimen, especially the armature
of the coxa is different from that of Home's diagram of
There is no distinct tooth, only a rounded prominence at the distaL

Himantarium indicum Meinert.
This specimen is in poor condition and has evidently been allowed
to dry at some time in its history. The antennae are distinctly attenuate.
The ventral pores are in a posterior, transverse, subreniform area three
or four times as broad as long. This area is scarcely depressed, but is
quite definite. Pleural pores are not visible.

Himantarium tceniopse (Wood).

Ventral pores in a small, round, impressed, posterior area. No

pleural pores visible, but they may be concealed under the very broad

last ventral plate, as is the case in the following species.

Himantarium laticeps (Wood).

The ventral plates appear to be unusually long. The pores are

located about two-thirds back, in broad, short, transverse areas. Three-

Life-history of Scale Insects.— In an excellent account of the
Scale Insects affecting deciduous fruit trees Mr. L. O. Howard dis-
cusses* the life-history of the Coccida? as follows : In respect to life history,
the family Coccidse, which includes all of the so-called scale insects, is
very abnormal. The eggs are laid by the adult female either immediately
beneath her own body or at its posterior extremity. Certain species
do not lay eggs, but give birth to living young, as do the plant lice.
This abnormal habit is not characteristic of any particular group of
forms, but is found with individual species in one or more genera. The
young on hatching from the eggs are active, six-legged, mite-like
creatures which crawl rapidly away from the body of the mother,
wander out upon the new and tender growth of the tree, and there
settle, pushing their beaks through the outer tissue of the leaf or twig
and feeding upon the sap. Even in this early stage the male insect can
be distinguished from the female by certain differences in structure.
As a general thing, the female casts its skin from three to five times
before reaching the adult condition and beginning to lay eggs or give
birth to young. With each successive molt the insect increases in size
and becomes usually more convex in form. Its legs and antennae be-
come proportionately reduced, and its eyes become smaller and are
finally lost. As a general thing, it is incapable of moving itself from
the spot where it has fixed itself after the second molt, although certain
species crawl throughout life. The adult female insect, then, is a
motionless, degraded, wingless, and, for all practical purposes, legless
and eyeless creature. In the armored scales she is absolutely legless
and eyeless. The mouth parts, through which she derives nourishment,
remain functional, and have enlarged from molt to molt. Her body
becomes swollen with eggs or young, and as soon as these are laid or
born she dies.

The life of the male differs radically from that of the female. Up to
the second molt the life history is practically parallel in both sexes, but
after this period the male larva transforms to a pupa, in which the
organs of the perfectly developed, fledged insect become apparent. This
change may be undergone within a cocoon or under a male scale. The
adult male, which emerges from the pupa at about the time when the
female becomes full grown, is an active and rather highly organized
creature, with two broad, functional wings and long, vibrating antenna?.

* Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1894.

large and strongly faceted. The mouth parts are entirely absent, their
place being taken by supplementary eye spots. The function of the
male insect is simply to fertilize the female, and it then dies. The
number of generations annually among bark lice differs so widely with
different forms that no gei

EMBRYOLOGY.1

The development of Isopods.— Last Winter when M. Louis
Roule published a long paper in French on the development of an Iso-
pod, Porcellio scaber Leach, it seemed advisable to present a rather full
abstract in this magazine, for the benefit of those readers who would
not see the original or who did not read French. That abstract ap-
peared in February and contained, besides the descriptive account of
the embryology, some interesting conclusions based on these results.

In the May number of the Journal of Morphology Dr. J. Playfair
b publishes a long paper, illustrated with excellent figures,
which is not at all reconcilable with M. Roule's views. It must be re-
membered, in comparing the two papers, that M. Roule studied a single
species of Isopod, that he gives rather diagrammatic figures, and that
his description of the segmentation, on which apparently the whole
fabric rests, is of a very general nature.

Dr. McMurrich took up the work in 1890, hoping to make out the
cytogeny of a Crustacean as Whitman had done for Clepsine, and
as E. B. Wilson has later done for Nereis and other forms. This
author's results rest then on a thorough study of the segmentation, and
as he did not confine his attention to one form, but observed and figured
the segmentation and early differentation in a number of Isopods, the

The forms studied were Jcera marina Mobius (1873); Asellus communis
Say; Porcellio scaber ; Armadillidium vulgare ; with some observations
on Cymothoa and Ligia.

The segmentation is centrolecithal. The nucleus of the unsegmented
ovum lies in a central mass of protoplasm surrounded by yolk, and

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

244 The American Naturalist. [March,

from the central protoplasm a network extends out through the yolk
to a peripheral layer. It is possible to determine the second plane of
division as that of the long axis of the embryo as has been shown to be
the case in Nereis, Crepidula, and Umbrella. In discussing the
segmentation, the author uses the term cell as a convenient one for the
nucleated bodies of protoplasm which appear on division in the yolk,
but he insists on the syncitial nature of the ovum to a late period.

The cleavage is apparently a spiral one, and results in what may be
spoken of as a blastula stage, in which considerable differentiation has
taken place. From the eight cell stage, especially in Jjera, it is possible
to trace the history of different areas of this blastula to certain well
marked cells. For instance, in Jaera, a cell at the posterior pole
gives rise to the future Vitellophags, three cells immediately en-
circling it are the ancestors of the mesendoderm, while the ectoderm
arises from the remaining four anterior cells. There are some interest-
ing variations in this history in the forms studied, though the end result
is practically the same. The author concludes with E. B. Wilson that,
" cells having precisely the same origin in the cleavage, occupying the
same position in the embryo, and placed under the same mechanical
conditions may nevertheless differ fundamentally in morphological
significance."

In connection with the segmentation Dr. McMurrich thinks that the
existence of a syncitium up to so late a period in differentiation is of
special interest in relation to the current disscusion of the cell-theory.
The question is asked, " are we to believe that there is no continuity in
Lucifer, between the blastomeres, notwithstanding that in all prob-
ability there was continuity in the ova of its ancestors ? " In Peripatus
capensis there is an approach to holoblastic cleavage associated with
less yolk and still a syncitium results. This is regarded as supporting
" the supposition that, even in such cases as Lucifer, there may be also
a continuity of protoplasm, the separation into distinct spherules being
only apparent."

It should be remembered that, however, plausible this argument is, of
course the fact of continuity between the blastomeres of Lucifer or of
other holoblastic ova still remains to be proven by direct observation.

The conclusion that " the existence of a syncitium is no bar to a cer-
tain amount of differentiation," certainly seems justified from the facts
described for Jsera. Continuing this subject, such a syncitium is com-
pared with the differentiation in certain protozoa, and a peculiar
phenomenon in Porcellio is considered, where there i
segregation of a portion of the cytopla

1896.] Embryology. 245

formation of the blastoderm.

" not in accordance with any previous location of a nucleus, but inde-
pendently." Dr. McMurrich thinks that " this phenomenon seems to
demonstrate that cytoplasmic differentiation may occur independently
of definite nuclear influence." He immediately adds, however, that
" he, of course does not mean to assert that the nuclei may not possess
a coordinating or i w n * •,■■< ■"•fion upon the cytoplasm, but that they
are directly responsible for the segregation or concentration seems to him
an unwarranted assumption."

It is difficult to understand just what is meant by these statements.
The remarkable concentration of the peripheral protoplasm of the ovum
of Porcellio toward the definitive ventral side, independently of any
previous location of nuclei, is notewothy. Does it, however, "demon-
strate cytoplasmic differentiation independent of definite nulcear influ-
ence?" Can this movement of protoplasm, even toward a definite
point, be correctly spoken of as differentiation and compared with the
specialization in the cytoplasm of certain protozoa? Having in mind
the condition of the ovum when this phenomenon takes place, is it not
possible that the movement may be the result of nuclear influences from
the center, acting through the central network on the periphal proto-

Again, if the phenomenon demonstrates cytoplasmic differentiation
independent of definite nuclear influence, why does the author add that,
'• he does not mean to assert that the nuclei may not possess a coordi-
nating action upon the cytoplasm ? " There seems to be a contradiction
in these two statements, which may destroy the force of the argument.
It should also be remembered that in Jsera, and in the other Isopods
studied, there is a contraction of the blastoderm cells toward the ventral
surface. Here the nuclei, as well as the cytoplasm, of the blastoderm
are evidently directly involved. Perhaps the precocious segregation of
cytoplasm ventrally in Porcellis is but an early appearance of this pro-
cess. If it be admitted that the nuclei possess coordinating influences
on the cytoplasm, how can it be claimed that in the case of the highly
differentiated protozoa such influences were not active during the
differentiation ?

Another point discussed is the extent of external influences and their
action, in holoblastic and in centrolecithal ova like those of Jiera. The
conclusion reached from a review of the facts of segmentation is that " the
cleavage form of Jsera is determined entirely by intrinsic conditions."
The phenomena of segmentation " leave us no choice but to refer the
vis essentialis which determines the direction of the Karyokinetic

246 The American Naturalist. [March,

spindle, and therefore, the cleavage form of Jjera, to the constitutional
peculiarity of the ovum." « Holoblastic ova, the author believes, can
not be excluded from the action of external forces, but the presumption
is allowable, for several reasons, that even in these intrinsic forces are
important." The assumption must consequently be made " that intrinsic
forces reside in all ova, though they may be overshadowed by external

It is important to examine the assumption which forms the founda-
tion of this argument. The author quotes E. B. Wilson's conclusion
that •« cleavage forms are not determined by mechanical conditions
alone," and assumes that by " mechanical conditions," Wilson means
conditions extrinsic to the ovum. This can hardly be so, for it is
necessary to include among the " mechanical conditions " influencing the
cleavage of an ovum like that of Jsera, the presence in the cytoplasm of
a great accumulation of food-yolk, (excessive in quantity when com-
pared with that in holoblastic or meroblastic ova). It is true that this
mass is within the ovum, and in so far " intrinsic ", but its action is
usually looked on as that of a foreign body, so to speak, which modi-
fies and obscures the primitive phenomona of cleavage and differentia-
tion as seen in holoblastic ova. Hence it is important to remember
that Dr. McMurrich, in maintaining that " the cleavage form of Jjera
is determined entirely by intrinsic conditions," must include the action
of the nutritive mass. This would seem to weaken materially the posi-
tion that extrinsic influences, (in the generally accepted sense as
extrinsic to active cytoplasm), are excluded from action on the spindles
of centrolecithal ova. The confusion seems to lie in the use of the
word intrinsic to include, in the case of the ovum of Jaera, both inher-
ent properties of the protoplasm, and secondary forces due to the pres-
ence of a body of nutritive material which is morphologically not a part
of the protoplasm. Dr. McMurrich's conclusion, that " instrinsic
forces reside in all ova", or preferably, as E. B. Wilson has just it,
" cleavage forms are not determined by mechanical conditions alone,"
will probably be accepted as truth by most observers. However, I can
not see that he has shown that " in Jsera we have practically a demon-
stration of the correctness of this view " of a more convincing charac-
ter than is exhibited by holoblastic ova.

"The cleavage form of Jsera, is said to be, determined entirely by
intrinsic conditions." A conclusion from which Dr. McMurrich sees
no escape, after a review of the changes of position in the yolk assumed
by the nuclei during segmentation. The Karyokinetic spindles then
are regarded as entirely beyond the influence of forces external to the

1896.] Embryobgy, 247

ovum in such eggs as those of Jaera, and their direction, with conse-
quently the cleavage form, is due without other alternative entirely to
the constitutional peculiarity of the ovum. After carefully considering
the evidence presented by Jaera and similar centrolecithal eggs, the
assumption does not seem warranted, that they are any more removed
from the influences of external forces, than are holoblastic ova. It
may be true that it is difficult to understand how forces external to a
centrolecithal ovum may affect the spindles within it, hut many will
find the same difficulty in the case of holoblastic ova. Does the great
increase of yolk in a centrolecithal ovum remove the spindles from the
action of the external world ? I, for one, can not see that this neces-
sarily follows, and hence do not see that the condition of segmentation
in Jaera leaves us no escape from the conclusion that its cleavage form
is determined entirely by intrinsic conditions.

Returning to the description of the embryo, it will be remembered
that the germ-layers are already distinguishable in a blastula stage on
the surface of the yolk in Jaera, and somewhat less distinctly in the
other forms. Now the blastoderm cells gradually concentrate towards
the ventral surface of the egg. This results in the mesendoderm and
vitellophag cells being crowded beneath the surface in the form of a
solid plug, and in the ectoderm of the ventral surface marking out a
somewhat triangular area, the base of which lies anteriorly while the
apex is posterior. This area is the Nauplius region. The rudiments
of the eyes are placed anteriorly at the angles of the base, the append-
ages appear later along the sides, while the blastoporic plug of mesendo-
dermal cells lies just under the posterior apical end. In a most
interesting discussion of the formation of the germs layers in the Crus-
tacea, the author concludes that the primitive Crustacea probably
passed through a blastula stage which was filled with yolk, and in
which a plug of cells migrated into the yolk to be later differentiated
into mesoderm and endoderm. This is the condition exhibited by the
Phyllopods (Samassa, 1893 and Bauer, 1892). Jaera, the Decapods
and especially Lucifer are examples of precocious differentiation of the
germ layers. The entire mesendoderm of Crustacea has a blastoporic
origin, and is not (except in Decapods, where there are secondary
phenomena) formed by delamination of extra-blastoporic region. The
under layer of the latter regions is formed by a migration of cells from
the blastoporic plug. In Armadiliidium this is especially well made
out. An interesting question is raised in regard to the mesenteron of
Astacus. Dr. McMurrich suggests the probability that the yolk-
pyramids do not form it, but eventually form u

248 The American Naturalist. [March,

the mesenteron is really formed by cells of the entodermic plates. This
interpretation would be more in line with what is known of other Crus-
tacea. Some of the most interesting observations and conclusions of
the paper are those concerning the development of the metanaupliar
regions of the embryo. It is a remarkable fact that the Naupliar and
- regions are very sharply distinguished by
. Dr. Patten was the first to call attention
to the fact of teloblastic growth in the ectoderm and mesoderm of
Cymothoa. Dr. McMurrich has gone further, and in his comparative
study, has made out in detail the character and limits of this method
of growth in Isopods. While the Naupliar is formed as described, the
metanaupliar regions, are the result of teloblastic growth in ectoderm
and mesoderm, just as the metatrochophoral regions of Polygordius are
due to a similar process. The author is inclined to regard these two
instances of teloblastic growth as acquired independently. He thinks
that in the Isopod " the development points back to a period where a
free-swimming Nauplius occurred in the development of the ancestors
of the group, the egg embryo being a nauplius." At such a time the
metanaupliar regions were developed after hatching. Now, however,
this posterior region is developed in Isopods before hatching, but it still
retains the peculiar teloblastic method of development, and is sharply
distinguishable from the Naupliar area.

There is unfortunately not space to describe this remarkable process.
It is interesting to note, however, that, while the ectoderm of the
metanaupliar regions arises from the successive divisions of a row of
ectodermal teloblasts, the rythm of these divisions is not the same as
that of the row of mesodermal teloblasts which lies beneath. The meso-
dermal teloblasts divide just 16 times giving rise to 16 transverse rows
of mesoderm cells, "each of which rows is equivalent to a segment," as
is proved on the appearance of appendages. The ectodermal teloblasts
divide twice as many times.

Though these are the main points of the paper, a number of impor-
tant observations and conclusions have been necessarily crowded out
of this review. For instance, I have not touched on the processes of
impregnation, the formation of membranes, the details of segmentation
and differentiation, the formation of the digestive tract, the history of
the vitellophages, or the development of certain organs.

-H. McE. Knower.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Consciousness and Evolution.— The quotation by Professor
Cattell in Science, July 26, of Professor Cope's table (from the Monist,
July, 1895) shows that he was equally struck by it with myself. Prof.
Cope gives in this table certain positions on points of development, in
two contrasted columns, as he conceives them to be held by the two
camps of naturalists divided in regard to inheritance into Preformists
and the advocates of Epigenesis. The peculiarity of the Epigenesis
column is that it includes certain positions regarding consciousness,
while the Preformist column has nothing to say about consciousness.
Being struck with this I wrote to Professor Cope — the more because
the position ascribed to consciousness seemed to be the same, in the
main, as that which I myself have recently developed from a psycho-
logical point of view in my work on Mmtal Dm 'torment (Macmillan
& Co.). I learn from him that the table1 is not new ; but was pub-
lished in the the • annual volume of the Brooklyn Ethical Society in
1891 ; ' and the view which it embodies is given in the chapter on
« Consciousness in Evolution ; ' in his Origin of the Fittest (Apple-
tons, 1887).

Apart from the questions of novelty in Professor Cope's positions —
and that Mr. Cattell and I should both have supposed them so can only
show that we had before read hastily ; I myself never looked into
Professor Cope's book until now— I wish to point out that the placing
of consciousness, as a factor in the evolution process, exclusively in
the Epigenesis column, appears quite unjustified. It is not a question,
as Mr. Cattell seems to intimate in his note referred to in Science,
July 26, of a causal interchange between body and mind. I do not
suppose that any naturalist would hold to an injection of energy in any
form into the natural processes by consciousness ; though, of course,
Professor Cope himself can say whether such a construction is true in
his case. The psychologists are, as Mr. Cattell remarks, about done
with a view like that. The question at issue when we ask whether con-
sciousness has had a part in the evolutionary process is, I think, m to
whether we say that the presence of consciousness— say in the shape of
sensations of pleasure and pain— with its nervous or organic correlative
processes, has been an essential factor in evolution ; and if so, further,

1 This table is given in the issue of Science for July 26, p. 100. The three

250 The American Naturalist.

whether its importance is because it is through the c
of it that the organic aspect gets in its work. Or, to take a higher form
of consciousness, does the memory of an object as having given pleasure
help an organism to get that object a second time ? This may be true,
although it is only the physical basis of memory in the brain that has
a causal relation to the other organic processes of the animal.

Conceiving of the function of consciousness, therefore, as in any case
not a cleus ex machina, the question I wish to raise is whether it can
have an essential place in the development process as the Preformists
construe that process. Professor Cope believes n
to appear fully in his proposed book. I believe t
sciousness may be the same— and may be the ess<
Cope gives it in his left-hand column and which I give it in mv Met&U
I), ,, lopment—on the Preformist view. I have argued briefly for this
indifference to the particular theory one holds of heredity, in my book
(Chap. VIL), reserving for a further occasion certain arguments in
detail based upon the theory of the individual's personal relation to his
social environment. The main point involved, however, may be briefly
indicated now, although, for the details of the social influences appealed
to, I must again refer to my book (Chaps, on « Suggestion ' and « Emo-

I have there traced out in some detail what other writers also have
lately set in evidence, I. e., that in the child's personal development, his
ontogenesis, his life history, he makes a very faithful reproduction of his
social conditions. He is, from childhood up, excessively receptive to
social suggestion ; his entire learning is a process of conforming to
social patterns. The essential to this, in his heredity, is excessive in-
stability, cerebral balance and equilibrium, a readiness to overflow into
the new channels which his social environment dictates. He has to
learn everything for himself, and in order to do this he must begin in a
state of great plasticity and mobility. Now, my point, but briefly, is
that these social lessons which he learns for himself take the place
largely of the heredity of particular paternal acquisitions. The father
must have been plastic to learn, and this plasticity is, as far as evidence
goes, the nervous condition of acute consciousness ; the father then

child does the same. What he inherits is nervous plasticity and the
consciousness. He learns particular acts for himself; and what he
learns is, in its main line, what his father learned. So he is just as well
off, the child of Preformism, as if he had been the heir of the particular
lessons of his father's past. I have called this process ' Social Hered-

1896.] Psychology. 251

ity,' since the child really inherits the details ; but he inherits them
from society by this process of social growth, rather than by direct
natural inheritance.

To show this in a sketchy way, I may take the last three points
which Professor Cope makes under the Epigenesis column, the points
which involve consciousness, and show how I think they may still be
true to the Preformist if he avail himself of the resource offered by
' S icial Heredity.'

I do this rather for convenience than with any wish to controvert
Professor Cope ; and it may well be that his later statements may show
that even this amount of reference to him is not justified.

1. (5 of Cope's table). " Movements of the organism are caused or
directed by sensation and other conscious states."

The point at issue here between the advocate of Epigenesis and the
Preformist would be whether it is necessary that the child should
inherit any of the particular conscious states, or their special nervous
dispositions, which the parent learned in his lifetime, in order to secure
through them the performance of the same actions by the child. I
should say, no ; and for the reason— additional to the usual arguments
of the Preformists— that 'Social Heredity ' will secure the same result.
All we have to have in the child is the high consciousness represented
by the tendency to imitate the parent or to absorb social copies, and
the general law now recognized by psychologists under the name of
Dynamogenesis— ■*. e., that the thought of a movement tends to dis-
charge motor energy into the channels as near as may be to those
necessary for that movement.5 Given these two elements of endow-
ment in the child, and he can learn anything that his father did, with-
out inheriting any particular acts learned by the parent. And we must
in any case give the child this much ; for the principle of Dynamo-
genesis is a fundamental law in all organisms, an.] the tendency to take
in external 'copies' by imitation, etc., is present in all social animals,
as a matter of fact.

The only hindrance that I see to the child's learning everything that
his life in society requires would be just the thing that the advocates of
Epigenesis argue for— the inheritance of acquired characters. For
such inheritance would tend so to bind up the child's nervous sub-
stance in fixed forms that he would have less or possibly no unstable
substance left to learn anything with. So, in fact, it is with the animals
in which instinct is largely developed ; they have no power to learn
any thing new, just because their nervous systems are not in the mobile

252 The American Naturalist [March,

condition represented by high consciousness. They have instinct and
little else. Now, I think the Preformist can account for instinct also,
but that is beside the point; what I wish to say now is that, if Epigen-
esis were true, we should all be, to the extent to which both parents do
the same acts (as, for example, speech) in the condition of the creatures
who do only certain things and do them by instinct. I should like to
ask of the Neo-Lamarckian : What is it that is peculiar about the
strain of heredity of certain creatures that they should be so remark-
ably endowed with instincts? Must he not say in some form that the
nervous substance of these creatures has been 'set' in the creatures'
ancestors? But the question of instinct is touched upon under the

2. (6 of Cope's table). " Habitual movements are derived from
conscious experience." This may mean movements habitual to the in-
dividual or to the species in question. If it refers to the individual it
may be true on either doctrine, provided we once get the child started
on the movement— the point discussed under the preceding head. If,
on the other hand, habitual movements mea
the question of race habits, best typified in i
Cope that most race habits are dn
place ; and making that our supposition, again we ask : Can one who
believes it still be a Preformist? I should again say that he could.
The problem set to the Preformist would not in this case differ from
that which he has to solve in accounting for development generally :
it would not be altered by the postulate that consciousness is present in
the individual. He can say that consciousness is a variation, and what
the individual does by it is * preformed ' in this variation. And then
what later generations do through their consciousness is all preformed
in the variations which they constitute on the earlier variations. In
other words, I do not see that the case is made any harder for the Pre-

a real agent. And I think we may go further and say that the case
is easier for him when we take into account the phenomena of Social
Heredity. In children, for example, there are variations in their
mobility, plasticity, etc. ; in short, in the ease of operation of Social
Heredity as seen in the acquisition of particular functions. Children
are notoriously different in their aptitudes for acquiring speech, for
example ; some learn faster, better, and more. Let us say that this is
true in animal communities generally ; then these most plastic individ-
uals will be preserved to do the advantageous things for which their
them to be the most fit. And the next generation will

1896.] Psychology. 253

show an emphasis of just this direction in its variations. So the fact
of Social Heredity— the fact of acute use of consciousness in ontogeny
— becomes an element in phylogeny, also, even on the Preformist

Besides, when we remember that the permanence of a habit learned
by one individual is largely conditioned by the learning of the same
habits of others (notably of the opposite sex) in the same environment,
we see that an enormous premium must have been put on variations of
a social kind — those which brought different individuals into some
kind of joint action or cooperation. Wherever this appeared, not only
would habits be maintained, but new variations, having all the force of
double hereditary tendency, might also be expected. But consciousness
is, of course, the prime variation through which cooperation is secured.
All of which means, if I am right, that the rise of consciousness is of
direct help to the Preformist in accounting for race habits— notably
those known as gregarious, cooperative, social.

3. (7 of Cope's table). " The rational mind is developed by exper-
ience, through memory and classification." This, too, I accept, pro-
vided the term « classification ' has a meaning that psychologists agree
to. So the question is again: Can the higher mental functions be
evolved from the lower without calling in Epigenesis? I think so.
Here it seems to me that the fact of Social Heredity is the main and
controlling consideration. It is notorious how meagre the evidence
is that a son inherits or has the peculiar mental traits of parents beyond
those traits contained in the parents' own heredity. Galton has shown
how rare a thing it is for artistic, literary or other marked talent to
descend to the second generation. Instead, we find such exhibitions
showing themselves in many individuals at about the same time, in the
same communities, and under the same social conditions, etc. Groups
of artists, musicians, literary men, appear, as it were, as social outbursts.
The presuppositions of genius— dark as the subject is— seem to be
great power ef learning or absorbing, marked gifts or proclivities of a
personal kind which are not directly inherited but fall under the head
of sports or variations, and then a social environment of high level in
the direction of these sports. The details of the individual development,
inside of the general proclivity which he has, are determined by his
social environment, not by his natural heredity. And I think the
phylogenetic origin of the higher mental functions, thought, self-con-
sciousness, etc., must have been similar. I have devoted space to a
detailed account of the social factors involved in the evolution of these
higher faculties in my book.

254 The American Naturalist.

[Februai

I fail to see any great amount of truth in the claims of Mr. Spencer
that intellectual progress in the race requires the Epigenesis view. The
level of culture in a community seems to be about as fixed a thing as
moral qualities are capable of being; much more so than the level of
individual endowment. This latter seems to be capricious or variable,
while the former moves by a regular movement and with a massive
front. It would seem, therefore, that intellectual and moral progress
is gradual improvement, through improved relationships on the part of
the individuals to one another; a matter of social accommodation,
rather than of natural inheritance alone, on the part of individuals. It
is only a rare individual whose heredity enables him to break through
the lines of social tissue and imprint his personality upon the social
movement. And in that case the only explanation of him is that he
is a variation, not that he inherited his intellectual or moral power
Furthermore, I think the actual growth of the individual in intellect-
ual stature and moral attainment can be traced in the main to certain
of the elements of his social milieu, allowing always a balance of varia-
tion in the direction in which he finally excels.

So strong does the case seem for the Social Heredity view in this
matter of intellectual and moral progress that I may suggest an
hypothesis which may not stand in court, but which I find interesting.
May not the rise of the social life be justified from the point of view of
a second utility in addition to that of its utility in the struggle for
existence as ordinarily understood ; the second utility, L e., of giving to
each generation the attainments of the past which natural inheritance
is inadequate to transmit ? Whether we admit Epigenesis or confine
ourselves to Preformism, I suppose we have to accept Mr. Galton's law
of Regression and Weismann's principle of Panmixia in some shape.
Now when social life begins we find the beginning of the artificial selec-
tion of the unfit ; and so these negative principles begin to work directly
in the teeth of progress, as many writers on social themes have recently
made clear. This being the case, some other resource is necessary
besides natural inheritance. On my hypothesis it is found in the
common or social standards of attainment which the individual is fitted
to grow up to and to which he is compelled to submit. This secures
progress tu two ways: First, by making the individual learn what the
race has learned, thus preventing social retrogression, in any case; and
seecond, by putting a direct premium on variations which are socially
available.

Under this general conception we may bring the biological phenom-
ena of infancy, with all their evolutionary significance: the great

1896.] Anthropology. 255

plasticity of the mammal infant as opposed to the highly developed in-
stinctive equipment of other young; the maternal care, instruction
and example during the period of helplessness, and the very gradual
attainment of the activities of self-maintenance in conditions in which
social activities are absolutely essential. All this stock of the develop-
ment theory is available to confirm this view.

And to finish where we began, all this is through that wonderful
engine of development, consciousness. For consciousness is the avenue
of all social influences.— J. Mark Baldwin, Princeton.

The preceding communication from Prof. Baldwin is copied from Science of
August 28, 1896. It is reprinted in order to render intelligible a review of it
which I propose to publish in the next number o" " "

ANTHROPOLOGY.1

Mercer's Cave Explorations in Yucatan.'— This a hand-
somely illustrated volume which describes in detail the researches
made by the Corwith Expedition to Yucatan, under the direction of
Mr. H. C. Mercer of the University of Pennsylvania. The object of
the expedition was to search for the remains of prehistoric man in the
cave deposits, and to learn who were the predecessors or ancestors of
the peoples whose civilization is attested by the remarkable ruins
which are such a conspicuous feature of that country. Explorations
of this kind made in Europe have achieved such important results to
archeology, that every research in America must be watched with
great interest. As a summary of his work, Mr. Mercer remarks :

" The intervening two months seemed a long time ; nor was it easy
to realize that, after all, the area gone over had not exceeded one
hundred miles in length by ten in breadth. Twenty-nine caves had
been visited in sixty days, of which ten had been excavated. Thirteen
had archeological significance. Six had yielded valuable, and three,
decisive results.

" We had seen but little of the ruins. We had not passed south-
ward over the boundary line into the great wilderness, whence fables
of lost cities reach the traveller's ear. Our continued study of an un-

1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, Univer.-ity of Pennsylvania.

8 The Hill Caves of Yucatan : A Search for the Evidence of Man's Antiquity
in Central America ; being an account of the Corwith Expedition of the Depart-
ment of Archeology and Paleontology of the University of Pennsylvania, by
Henry C Mercer. J- B. Lippincott & Co. Philadelphia, 1896. 8vo., pp. 183.

256 The American Naturalist. [March,

derground layer of human refuse substantially the same in all the
caves, instructive as it was, had taught us but little of details. Evi-
dently a wide range of tools and implements had not been left, lost or
broken in the subterranean rooms. We did not find, and did not
expect to find, that the water producing underground chambers had
been used as burying places. Neither were they dwellings, but rather
temporary halting spots, which, but for the water supply, would prob-
ably have shown fewer human traces than do the caves of the United
States. Human bones scattered in the rubbish indicated that the old
inhabitants of Yucatan practiced cannibalism.. Beyond that, the
traces of pre-Columbian cookery at tbe underground sites referred to
an ancient cave visitor, who was rather an agriculturist than a hunter,
and who (unless the dog found at Sabaka be an exception) possessed
no domestic animals.

" We had learned little of stone chipping, and had found in tbe
scanty list of stone blades but one imperfect point that might have
served for an arrowhead. The secret of stone carving we had failed
to discover, and though the whole mystery had seemed within our
grasp at Oxkintok, we had to rest content with proving that the chis-
elling of the ruins could not have been done with chips of the parent
block or round hammer stones. We had found no copper, or gold, or
silver, no jade, no gums, no preserved grains, no cloth, no apparatus
for weaving, and had discovered no pipe, and learned nothing of pre-
Columbian smoking or tobacco.

" A close examination of the potsherds showed a ware mixed with
powdered limestone that reacted strongly under acid on the fractures.
A smooth red make, strong, wellbaked, and symmetrical, and whose
dull polished surface resisted the action of nitric acid, was abundant,
while a very few fragments were decorated with brightly colored de-
signs, though their polish, after the manner of varnish, yielded readily
to the acid test. Many, though better baked than the ware of the
Delaware Indians, were coarse. A very common hard variety had
been striped with brown lines on a white or bluish background. But
there was nothing brilliant or striking about these fragments of dishes,
cooking pots, or water jars. Few were ornamented, and only two or
three highly so. None were marked with hieroglyphs. Nevertheless, a
variety of tones, colors, and polish struck the eye when many sherds
were laid side by side and brushed.

" But results more important than these had rewarded our close ex-
amination of the position and contents of the human rubbish heap
everywhere present in the caves. Though this layer was the only cul-

Cave of Sayab Actun,

1896.] Anthropology. 257

ture layer, our digging had fairly proved at Oxkintok, Loltun and
Sabaka, and though we had often failed to reach rock bottom at other
caverns, there was nowhere ground for supposing that deeper digging
or blasting would have upset our inference. An earlier people visit-
ing Yucatan under its present topographical conditions must needs
have left their trace in the caves, and because the undisturbed earth
beneath the culture layer discovered, always failed to show trace of any
deeper, older or more primitive human visitor, the conclusion was that
no such earlier people had seen the region while its stony hills, its tor-
rid plain, and its damp caves were as they now are."

The evidence secured by Mr. Mercer justifies this conclusion so far
as it goes. To prove that a human population existed in Yucatan
prior to that whose remains were actually found, it will be necessary
to discover another series of deposits inside or out of an older type of
caves. No such caves were found, and while it cannot be asserted that
such will not be found, it is evident that they must be very rare if
existing in the region explored. The case of Yucatan may prove to
be similar to that of the United States, where I have shown on paleon-
tologic grounds,3 that cave deposits of two different ages exist. .The
remains of vertebrate life found in the caves of Yucatan explored by
Mr. Mercer, are those of the existing fauna of the country, and the de-
posits correspond, therefore, with those of the second (postchamplain)
age of the northern caves. Caves of prechamplain age are rare in the
United States, as shown by Mr. Mercer's earlier researches, having
been probably removed by the action of water during the Champlain
submergence. That such a submergence may have also taken place
in Yucatan is indicated by the recent researches of Spencer ; but if so,
a cleaner sweep of them was made than was the case in North Amer-

Among the remains of animals which were discovered, those of the
horse occurred in two caves, and the dog in one. It is probable they
both belong to the domesticated species.

I append some examples of the very admirable illustrations with
which the book abounds.

Apart from its scientific value, this book will interest the general
reader for various reasons. It is written in a pleasant style, and many
side lights are thrown on the characters of the country and people.
That the exploration was not without the element of danger is shown
by the tragic death of one of the natives ; while the sufferings of the
3 American Naturalist, 1895, p. 598.

The American Naturalist.

party from heat and insects show tfya^ none
undertake such labor. We recommend tht

Interior of grand

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.
Academy of Science of St. Louis. — President Gray in the
chair and twenty-two other persons present, Mr. Trelease exhibited
several specimens, about three feet square, of a curious silk tapestry,
taken from the ceiling of a corn-storing loft in San Luis Potosi, Mexico,
by Dr. Francis Eschauzier, stating that he was informed that the larger
specimen had been cut from a continuous sheet over twenty yards wide
and about four times as long. The specimens, of a nearly white color,
and of much the appearance and feeling of a soft tanned piece of sheeps-
kin, were shown to be composed of myriads of fine silken threads, cross-
ing and recrossing at every conceivable angle, and so producing a seem-
ingly homogeneous texture. Although specimens of the creatures by
which they are produced had not been secured, it was stated that there

1396,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 259

was no doubt that these tapestries are the work of lepidopterous larva?
which feed upon grain, the presumption being that they are made by
the larva? of what has been called the Mediterranean Grain or Flour
Moth (Ephestia kuhniella). The speaker briefly reviewed the history
of this insect and its injuriousness in various parts of the world, and
quoted from a report of Dr. Bryce, showing that in Canada, where it
became established in 1889, " a large warehouse, some 25 feet wide, 75
feet long, and four stories high, became literally alive with moths in
the short course of six months." — William Trelease.

Boston Society of Natural History. — February 5th. — The
following paper was read : Mr. Herbert Lyon Jones, " Biological adapta-
tions of desert plants to their surroundings. — Samuel Henshaw,

Nova Scotian Institute of Science. — 13th of January. — The
following papers were read : " Notes on the Superficial Geology of
Kings County, Nova Scotia," by Prof. A. E. Coldwell, M. A., Acadia
College. " A Note on Newton's Third Law of Motion," by Prof. Mac
Gregor, D. Sc, F. R. SS. E. & C, Dalhousie College.— Harry Pier,
Secretary.

New York Academy of Science, Biological Section.— Jan-
uary 13th, 1896.— The papers presented were : G. S. Huntington on
" The Visceral Anatomy of the Edentates." The characters of the brain,
alimentary, respiratory and genito urinary tracts were especially con-
sidered. The following forms were discussed : Myrmecophaga jubata,
Tamandua b i r i '" t-i. A ■■ r !,>>■,.•> didactylus,Dasypussexcinctus. T<dusia
iemtdata. In the brain characters the follow-
ing features were considered ; — the transverse frontal sulcus, the great
longitudinal fissure, and the absence of a distinct Sylvian fissure. In
the alimentary tra ci the ^loths are to be sharply separated from the
remaining groups, the stomach structure with its pyloric gizzard not-
ably aberrant: the ileo-colic junction is traced throughout the edentates
in a well marked series of transitional forms.

O. S. Strong, " On the Use of Formalin in Injecting Media." The
paper made especial note of the advantages possessed by this preserva-
tive in injecting the brain in situ. Formalin (40 per cent formalde-
hyde^ diluted with an equal volume of water is injected into the ceph-
alic vessels until it runs from the cut jugulars. After a few minutes
the same quantity is again injected and once or twice again after an
elapse of fifteen to twenty minutes. The brain is then removed and
will be found to be completely fixed throughout. The swelling usually

The American Naturalist.

noticed in formalin hardened brains does not appear to take place when
this method is employed. Besides the many general advantage of fix-
ing brains by injection, formalin has the especially merit of giving them
the best consistency for macroscopic work, and further such brains are
available subsequently for the Golgi and Weigert methods as well as,
possibly, for cytological methods. Formalin has also the advantage that
:i —l be used, as above, stronger than is necessary for fixation and

thus allowance made for its dilutio

permeating the

When only the Golgi method is to be used, an equal volume of a 10
per cent solution of potassium bichromate may be added to the formalin
instead of wafer. Pieces can be subsequently removed, hardened fur-
ther in formalin-bichromate and impregnated with silver.

Bashford Dean, « On the Supposed Kinship of the Paleospondylus."
A favorably preserved specimen of this interesting fossil, received by
the writer from Wm. T. Kinnear of Forss, Scotland, appears to warrant
the belief that this lamprey-like form was possessed fins, a character
decidedly adverse to the now widely accepted view of Marsipobranchian
affinities. The structure referred to consists of a series of transversely
directed rays, arising from the region of the postoccipital plates of
Traquair. From this peculiar character, as well as from many unlara-
prey-like features of the fossil, it would appear accordingly that the
kinship of the Paleospondylus is as yet by no means definitely deter-
mined.— C. L. Bristol, Secretary.

Nebraska Academy of Sciences.— The following program of
papers was presented. First Session— Thursday, Jan. 2, 1896. " Amer-
ica the Primitive Home of Civilization," H. S. Clason ; " The Home of
the Buffalo Grass," Dr. C. E. Bessey; "Early Rainfall Records in
Nebraska," G. D. Swezey; "The Volcanic Ashes of Nebraska," Dr. E.
H. Barbour. Second Session— Friday, Jan. :).—" The Relative Impor-
tance of Economic Fungi, East and West," F. W. Card ; " Animal
Parasites of Nebraska," Dr. H. B. Ward ; « Diatomaceous Deposits of
Nebraska," Dr. E. H. Barbour ; " Some Fossil Diatoms from Ne-
braska," C. J. Elmore ; " Wind Velocities in Nebraska," G. A. Love-
land ; " Report of Progress on the Study of Dtemonelix," Dr. E. H.
Barbour ; " Origin of the Present Flora of Nebraska," Dr C E
Bessey.

Scientific News.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Huxley Memorial.— Since the first meeting of the General Com-
mittee on November 27, which was fully reported by the Press, two
meetings of the Executive Committee have been held.

At the first of these, at which Lord Shand accepted the office of
Chairman, it was reported that a number of foreigners of eminence had
expressed a wish to be associated with the proposal to commemorate
Mr. Huxley's distinguished services to humanity. It was resolved, in
the first instance, to invite subscriptions from the members of the
General Committee.

At the second meeting, held on December 18, it was reported that
the subscriptions, which at the General Meeting had amounted to
£557, had been increased to about £1,400, and it was resolved that a
wider appeal for subscriptions should now be made to the friends and
admirers of Mr. Huxley amongst the general public. The sum sub-
scribed now exceeds £1,500.

The Committee resolved to communicate, by means of a sub-com-
mittee of their number, with Mr. Onslow Ford, R. A., who had the
advantage of being well acquainted with Mr. Huxley, in reference to
the statue, which it is proposed should be erected beside those of Dar-
win and Owen in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington.

The extent to which the Committee may be able to carry out the
other intended objects of founding exhibitions, scholarships, and med-
als for biological research and lectureships, and possibly in assisting
the republication of Mr. Huxley's scientific works, will, of course, de-
pend on the subscriptions which may now be received.

Meehans' Monthly is a magazine for the lovers of gardening; and
covers the whole field of general intelligence in so far as it may have
the remotest bearing on the chief topics it sets out to advance. For
instance, a beautiful Prang colored plate of some wild flower is given
every month, with a description which illustrates the whole ground of
classical history that has any bearing on the topic. Information on
the most diversified topics abound. Corn from Indian mounds will
not grow — swamps that are real swamps are among the healthiest of
localities. There is no sickness in the great dismal swamp of Virginia.

262 The American Naturalist [March,

Elderberry root is found to be a deadly poison. Foul water is pro-
nounced to be a self purifier, because bacteria eat out vegetable matter
and then die of starvation. The hickory and the chestnut are proven
cousin— Germans. Weeds are useful, by forcing the cultivator to work
to aerate the soil. Illustrations of a curious maze, formed of yew
hedges at Hampton Court, pruning and keeping trees from insects,
chrysanthemum culture, and practical information on fruits and flow-
ers are among the topics treated. Sample copies may be had of the
publishers, Thomas Meehan & Sons, Germantown, Philadelphia.

In the January Monist, of importance to students of evolution will
be the article on Germinal Selection, by the famous German biologist,
Prof. August Weismann, of Freiburg. In the theory of germinal selec-
tion, Prof. Weismann propounds a doctrine which rounds off and per-
fects, as he claims, the theories of Darwin and Wallace, and which
consists essentially in applying the principle of the struggle for life to
the minutest parts of organization, viz., to the germinal and determin-
ant particles generally. Weismann's article is a complete summary
of the present status of the discussions in evolutionary theory, and will
itself doubtless constitute one of the most important recent acquisitions
to biological science.

Abnormal pleasures and pains are treated by Prof. Th. Ribot, who
applies to their explanation the pathological method, using diseases as
a means of analysis. His results as regards the pleasure which some
people take in pain are highly interesting.

The fourth annual meeting of University Extension and other
students will be held in the four weeks beginning July 6, 1896, in the
buildings of the University of Pennsylvania. The Summer Meeting
combines the advantages of an ordinary summer school with the co-
operative feature which distinguishes conventions, or associations, in
which there are representatives of many universities and colleges.

Professor E. Selenka, of Erlangen, has resigned his position in order
that he may make a scientific journey. He has been appointed Hon-
orary Professor of Zoology in Munich. His place at Erlangen is
temporarily filled by Dr. Albert Fleischmann.

The Paris Academy of Science has recently elected the following
corresponding members : Dr. G. Retzius, of Stockholm, as successor to
Carl Vogt ; and Prof. R. Bergh, of Copenhagen, as successor to Huxley.

Dr. F. Miescher, Professor of Physiology in the University of Basel,
died at Davos, Switzerland, Aug. 26, 1895, aged 51 years. Dr. Rudolf
Metzner, of Freiburg i B, has been appointed his successor.

1896-] Scientific News. 265

Dr. Felix Hoppe-Seyler, Professor of Physiological Chemistry in th.
University of Strassburg, died in Wassenburg, on the Lake of Con
stance, Aug. 11, 1895, aged 70 years.

The Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, will
its annual meeting at Sydney, Jan. 3 to 10, 1896. Professor A. Livers-
edge is the President.

The Berlin Academy of Science has elected Professors K. W. von
Gumbel, K. A. von Zittel, A. Cossa, and Mr. Alexander Agassizascor
responding members.

Dr. R. Krause, who formerly had charge of the Anthropological Sec
tion of the Museum Godfroy in Hamburg, died in Schwerin, Mecklin
burg, July 25, 1895.

Dr. A. Schaper, of Zurich, has been appointed
ogy and Embryology in the Harvard Medical School.

Ernst Baumann, formerly head of the station of Misahohe, Wes!
Africa, died in Cologne, Sept. 4, 1895, aged 24 years.

Professor Hellriegel, botanist and Director of the Agricultural Ex
periment Station in Bernburg, died Sept. 24, 1895.

F. Nies, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in the Agrici
School of Hohenheim, is dead at the age of 56.

Dr. Herman Credner has been advanced to the Ordinary Professoi
ship of Geology in the University of Leipzig.

Dr. Valentin Hacker has been advanced to Extraordinary Pr
of Zoology in the University of Freiburg.

Dr. Emil Yung is the successor of the late Carl Vogt as Professoi
of Zoology in the University of Geneva.

Dr. Moritz Willkomm, formerly Professor of Botany in Prag, died
Aug. 26, in Wortenburg, Bohemia.

Dr. Kallies of Gottingen, has been promoted to Extraordinary Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in Tubingen.

Joseph Thompson, African explorer and geologist, died in London,
Aug. 2. 1895, aged 37 years.

Dr. F. Reinitzer, of Prag, has been appointed Extraordinary Pro-
fessor of Botany in Graz.

E. J. Chapman, Professor of Geology in Toronto, has resigned his
osition.

Dr. F. Czapek is now Privat-docent in Botany in the University of

Dr. H. Strahl has been appointed Professor of Anatomy in Giessen
Dr. P.H.Macgillivray,the student of Australian Polyzoa,is dead.
Dr. M. Miyoshi has been called to the chair of Botany in Tokyo.
Dr. A. Senoner, geologist, died in Vienna, Aug. 30, 1895.
Dr. J. Vesque, botanist, of Vincennes, France, is dead.
Dr. F. Muller, herpetologist, died at Basel in May.

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

THE BEARING OF THE ORIGIN AND DIFFERENTI-
ATION OF THE SEX CELLS IN CYMATOGASTER
ON THE IDEA OF THE CONTINUITY OF
THE GERM PLASM.1

Carl H. Eigenmanx.

At the meeting of the American Microscopical Society last
August I read a paper on the Evolution of Sex in Cymatogaster,
of which the present paper is a part. It is not, and was not
intended as a full discussion of heredity, but contains observa-
tions and conclusions forced upon me while tracing the sex
cells from one generation to the next in Cymatogaster aggregatus
Gibbons, one of the viviparous perches of California.

Since writing it, I have received from Dr. Minot his article
" Ueber die Vererbung und Verjiingung," which is just being
republished in the Naturalist. I have though t best to present
my results as read at the Ithaca meeting, with a note written
after the receipt of Dr. Minot's article, although the details of
the observations on which the conclusions are based may not
appear for some time.

266 The American Naturalist [April,

The origin of the heredity cells may be explained in one of
three ways :2

I. The sex cell is the product of the whole organism, and is
in this apart from the other tissues. This is the Pangenesis of
Darwin.

II. The sex cell is an unchanged but increased part of the
sex cell of the previous generation, and something apart from
the rest of the body. This is Jaefferism, or, more popularly,

Weimwnnism, and, according to it, the body has no influence
over the hereditary cells and changes arising during the life of
one individual cannot be transmitted to the next generation.

III. The sex cell is the product of histogenesis and of pre-
cisely the same significance and origin as any other cell in the
body. This view is held by Morgan, Minot and myself.

As a corollary of the last two is the fact that " in the
ancestry of the individual cells of which our body is composed
there has never been a death."

The first two theories are not based on observation. They
have been evolved from the attempts to explain the heredity
power of the sex cells.

The idea of the cellular continuity of successive generations
first suggested by Nussbaum in 1880, is now generally accepted.
Indeed, there is, perhaps, now no one who would contend that
the reproductive cells are new formations in the individual.
The reproductive cells are known to be of the same origin as
the retinal or any other series of cells. There is but little less
unanimity over the idea of the continuity of the unchanged
germ plasm, although the number of observations bearing on
this point have, necessarily, been very limited.3 So often is
the idea restated without actual examination of the data, the
whole subject has become hackneyed. I have taken up this
subject because it seems to me the conditions observed in Cy-
matogaster warrant a conclusion differing from the one gener-
ally accepted.

2SeeOsborn, Am. Nat., 1892. Morgan, Animal Life and Intelligence, 1891,
p. 131.

5 Boveri, Befruchtung in Ergebnisse der Anatomie und Entwicklungsgesch, I,
1892, records an apparent case of unchanged transmission.

1896.] Sex Cells in Cytnatogaster. 267

There is no doubt concerning the continuity of the repro-
ductive cells in Cymatogaster ; they may be followed from
very early conditions till sexual maturity without once losing
their identity. No somatic cells are transformed into repro-
ductive cells, and the comparative constancy of the number
of the latter present in any embryo up to 7 mm. long makes
it probable that none4 are ever changed into any other struc-
ture. These statements .apply with equal force to other tissues.

The difference between the reproductive and the somatic
cells is that the latter, after development has begun, continue
to develop, divide, grow and adapt themselves to their new
duties without intermission. The sex cells, on the other hand,
stop dividing at a certain point and remain at apparent rest
for a long period. Owing to this arrest in division the sex
cells soon stand out prominently as large cells among the
smaller somatic cells. Such an arrest in segmentation has
been observed in a number of other animals in which the re-
productive cells are early segregated, and it cannot be without
meaning. It has been supposed that during such periods of
apparent rest the cells remain dormant, retaining their em-
bryonic character unchanged. I do not think this is the true
reason for the difference of development between the soma and
the reproductive cells. The reason seems to me to lie in the
fact that the sexual organs are the last to become functional,
and their development is consequently retarded. The sex
cells, when first segregated — that is, when they first lag behind
in segmentation — are not exactly like the ovum from which
they have been derived, and there is just as true histogenesis
in their development into the reproductive tissues as in the
case of any other embryonic cells into their corresponding tis-
sue. Even during the long period of rest from segmentation,
the process of tissue differentiation produces a visible and
measurable change. But the difference between embryonic
cells and undifferentiated reproductive cells being small, the
histogenic changes in them during early stages is correspond-
ingly small. This small change has been supposed to amount
to no change, and has given rise to that fascinating " myth * the

4 For possible exceptions see Eigenmann, Journ. Morph., V, No. 3, 1891.

268 The American Naturalist. [April,

hypothesis of the continuity of unchanged germ cells, and
later, when observation in other animals had made this theory
untenable, to the theory of the continuity of unchanged germ
plasm which is beyond the ken of direct observation.

If the sex cells are the result of histogenesis, it will be neces-
sary to explain their peculiar power. They seem to me to be
due to the same processes that have given the retinal cells
their peculiar properties.

Assimilation, reproduction and the closely allied hereditary
power are the diagnostic characters of protoplasm. These,
with numerous other powers, such as contractility, conductiv-
ity and irritability, are the properties of every protozoan cell.
Even here we find that certain of these functions are more or
less restricted to definite parts of the cell. In the higher ani-
mals this differentiation has gone so far that definite functions
predominate in highly specialized cells to almost the exclusion
of the other powers.

With this division of labor and the consequent histogenic
differentiation of definite cells in the metazoan corm for pur-
poses of contraction, conduction and irritation, we have also
the differentiation for heredity, and it would be surprising if
we did not.

In lower forms, where the cells of the body often perform
many duties, where the division of labor and histogenesis has
not been carried to the extreme, many of these cells also retain
the hereditary power to a great extent as shown in the power
of budding or regeneration.

There seems to he no necessity to conjure up a substance
and processes in the genesis of the reproductive tissues differ-
ent from those obtaining in the muscular tissues.

During the long ages of the rise of animals those j
sufficiently differentiated contractile tissue to move the c
to food or from danger have survived, and in preciselv the
same way those corms containing cells capable of developing
into other similar corms have survived. Similar causes have
operated in producing each tissue.

The sex cells are proven to influence the formation of the
sex ridge. The peritoneal cells rise to form the ridge only

1896.] Sex Cells in Cymatogaster. 269

when sex cells are present without regard to whether this po-
sition is normal or not.5 If the sex cells thus influence the
surrounding tissue, may we not safely assume a reciprocal in-
fluence of the surrounding tissues on the reproductive cells?

Sexuality can first be distinguished not by the difference in
the sex cells, but by the character of the peritoneal covering.
While this difference in the peritoneal covering may be the
expression of an invisible difference existing in the repro-
ductive cells, it is quite possible that sex is determined by
the body. In frogs, butterflies, etc. the sex determining power
of the soma has been experimentally demonstrated. Later it
is well known that the character of the sex cells influences
the remotest parts of the organism, although we are not at all
familiar with the processes by which this is accomplished.

Changes in the sex cells introduced by the body which do
not become apparent until the development of the cells into
young, seem, therefore, to be not impossible, although we are
entirely unable to tell just how such a change might be ac-
complished.

Since writing the above, I have received, through the kind-
ness of the author, Dr. Minot's " Ueber die Vererbung und Ver-
jiingung." While the views expressed are not identical with
those given in the present chapter, there is considerable agree-
ment. Dr. Mmot recognizes that the problem of the origin of
the reproductive cells is also the problem of the origin of the
tissue cells (p. 580), and that " a germ plasm in the Weismann-
ian sense does not exist." So far we agree. According to him
all parts inherit from the germ and possess, as well as the re-
productive cells, the power of multiplying and morphogenesis,
but this power cannot manifest itself on the part of the somatic
cells because the conditions of the body prevent it. The con-
ditions are the increased amount of protoplasm and the
specialization of the tissues. According to my views it is not
so much a high state of tissue differentiation which holds cap-
tive the morphogenic power in muscle cells for instance as it

and situated in front of the normal position,
about these sex cells entirely independent ol
occurring in the normal place.

270 The American Naturalist. [April,

is the process of tissue differentiation which emphasizes the
contractile power in the muscle cell, at the same time limiting
and finally eliminating the morphogenic power, and which
gives the sex cells morphogenic power in such marked degree
while it deprives them largely of contractile power. In a
former paper,6 I stated this view thus: "The segmentation
nucleus of metazoa contains, as in the infusoria, both micro
and macro nuclear elements, but these are retained in varying
proportions in its descendants, i. e., in the cells of the adult
organism. Through a process of division of labor the power
of rejuvenescence becomes restricted to comparatively few of
the cells derived from the segmentation nucleus."

While Minot's views are in part borne out by the conditions
in Cymatogaster, the italicised part of the quotation below
finds no support, and is negatived by all the observations made
in Cymatogaster. His conclusion, as translated by me, is :
" Somatic cells are simply cells in which the activity of hered-
ity is prevented by senescence, viz. : tissue differentiation, but
the somatic cells can, under favorable conditions, be \
the rejuvenated stage and then develop the most complete or, at least,
more compb tr, hereditary power."

The sex cells originally segregated retain their individ-
uality, but undergo a measureable change between the time of
their segregation and 7 mm. long larvae. Soon after the
larva has reached a length of 7 mm., the sex cells begin to di-
vide. In the meanwh ile they have migrated laterad and lie, for
the most part, in a longitudinal groove formed by a duplica-
tion of the peritoneum into which a few peritoneal cells have
also migrated. In one such case an extra sex ridge rvas formed
much f > rt her forward than usual, in connection with a few sex cells
which were accidentally belated in their migration. The peri-
toneal cells which have migrated into the sex ridge give rise
to the entire stroma of the future sex glands, and together
with the sex cells form a core quite distinct from the covering

1896.] Principles of Geology and its Aim. 271

of peritoneum. Posteriorly the sex ridges of the two sides are
united into a single ridge. There is considerable variation in
the rate of segmentation in larvse of the same size, but the fol-
lowing table will give an idea of the segmentation and the
number of cells in successive stages :

10 28-183 6-9

12 39-143 7-9

15-17 638-2280 11-13 sexes distinct

16-25 2200-8000 13-15

The sexes can first be distinguished not by the differences
in the sex cells, but in the tunic of peritoneal cells. A small
groove on the outer ventral pert of the sex ridge is the first
indication of the ovarian cavity and the surest criterion of the
female. In the male the sex gland remains much more cir-
cular in cross section and no groove is developed. Much later
histological differences in the sex cells themselves can be made
out. The long slender chromatin threads of the female cell
just before dividing are represented in the male by short, thick

(Continued from paye 183.)
Lamarck and Defrance earnestly engaged in study of fossil
shells, and the former, in 1802, reconstructed the system of
conch ology and introduced into it the new species collected
by the latter from the strata underlying the city of Paris and
quarried for the construction of its buildings. Six years pre-
vious to this Cuvier had established the different specific char-
acter of fossil and living elephants and he devoted himself to
researches throughout the remainder of his life. Jameson,
in 1808, pointed out the nature of all the rocks and the mode
in which they were formed, and made use of the observations

272 The American Naturalist [April,

of Desmorest, who, in 1768, traced the origin of basalt to the
crater of volcanoes.

In 1807 the Geological Society of London was established
with the professed object of encouraging the collection of data
and the making of observations. In 1819 the Society pub-
lished a map of England by the aid of Greenough. About
the same time Buch prepared a similar map of a large part of
Germany. A geological survey of France was ordered in 1822
by the French government, and as a result a geological map
was published in 1841. Conybeare and Phillips published a
treatise on the " Geology of England and Wales," in 1821. In
181-1 Aiken published his work on mineralogy, which had a
large circulation at home and in this country. Previous to
this Sowerby published a work on " British Mineralogy, illus-
trated with colored plates," but the date of which I do not
know. The publication of the Geological Map of England, in
1815, by Smith, may be said to form an epoch in the history
of geology.

In 1809 Maclure published an article on " Observations on
the Geology of the U. S., explanatory of a Geological Map,"
and he is rightly called the father of American geology. He
visited all parts of the Union and all the principleming ni dis-
tricts of Europe. In 1817 he presented a report to the " Phil-
osophical Society of Philadelphia " of his work, and accom-
panied it with a colored map. In 1816 and 1817 he visited
the Antilles and published a paper on their geology. In 1810
Bruce, of New York, published the first purely scientific jour-
nal supported by original American contributions. His jour-
nal was devoted principally to mineralogy and geology.
Science was also promoted by the collections in the colleges
and societies, and by those made by scientific men. In 1816
Cleveland published a treatise on mineralogy. In 1818 Dana
published a detailed report on the mineralogy and geology of
Boston and vicinity. In the same year the American Journal
of Science was first published. The first geological survey
made by State authority was that of North Carolina in 1824.

In 1830 the Principles of Geology, by Lyell, appeared and
has most powerfully influenced the direction of scientific

1896.] Principles of Geology, and its Aim. 273

thought in the 19th century. It broke down the belief in the
necessity of stupendous convulsions in past times. He adopted
and improved the views of Hutton, eliminating the baseless
theories mingled with them. He rendered great service in
elucidating North American geology, and published his travels
on this continent in 1845 and 1849. His " Geological Evi-
dences of the Antiquity of Man,'' published in 1863, startled
the public by its advocacy of Darwin's theory in the " Origin

And so the science has advanced with rapid strides and is
solving the problems that are constantly arising in regard to
our planet, and upon its fixed data are based many of the
fundamental principles of philosophy.

Having considered the history of the progress of geology,
let us now consider its aim and the fundamental principles
upon which the geologist bases his work.

In the broadest sense, geology is the science whose province
is the planet upon which we live, its history from the begin-
ning to the present, including changes which have occurred
in regard to the condition at different periods, its several
physiographic features, its atmosphere, temperatures, and
aqueous bodies, and its life at different stages. In a nutshell,
the evolutionary progress of the earth.

The narrow or commonly accepted view does not consider
the changes that have occurred, other than those that occurred
to the visible portion of the earth. Back of what is supposed
to be the earliest formation, it does not attempt to go.

The latter view is sufficient for the ordinary geologist or for
the geologist who does not care to speculate on hypotheses
which refer to the origin of the earth ; but to the geologist
who is anxious to grapple with problems which require a
drawing upon the imagination for solution, this is not enough.
Chemists are not satisfied to study a drop of water, but they
are anxious to know its origin ; its composition is not suffi-
cient for them. Botanists and zoologists desire to know the
origin of plants and animals, not merely their structural and
physiological features.

274 The American Naturalist. [April,

Geologists who study the earth, not merely to satisfy their own
curiosity as to the present condition of things, but for the pur-
pose of advancing the science, and unraveling the mysteries of
the past, in order to produce a history of the planet as accu-
rately as human knowledge in its present condition will per-
mit, are only satisfied with the broad and comprehensive view.
Geology, by the aid of astronomy and physics, therefore, be-
gins with a great nebulous mass, of which all celestial bodies
were component parts. It traces the evolution of each body,
and that of the earth in particular. Starting when the earth
was thrown off as a ring of cloudy or gaseous elements, it
traces it through its transformation into a sphere of molten
matter surrounded with gases, through which the parent body,
the sun, could not penetrate. We learn of the war that existed
between the congealing surface aud the liquid interior in
which the former came off victorious, and formed a crust
through which the latter seldom broke. Then began the war
between the condensing vapors and the heated crust, in which
the latter succumbed to the overpowering element that fell
upon it and fairly covered it.

Geology tells us of the life that existed in this mighty ocean
after it became sufficiently cooled, and in the powerful in-
ternal movements that resulted in the upheaval of masses of
rock that were to be the nuclei of the present continents, the
history and the formation of which is traced with great min-
uteness, and the life of each is described with great care, from
the lowest forms to the highest, and also the period in which
each form lived.

There are several principles by which the geologist is guided
in answering the questions that continually arise as he studies
the earth with its many characteristics.

1 In the first place, he understands that geology is an induc-
tive science. That is, it is a process of demonstration in which
a general truth is gathered from an examination of a self-
evident truth. Let me illustrate : From the study of modern
glaciers he learns certain facts in regard to conditions neces-
sary for their formation, their modes of action, and the results

Principles of Geology and its Aim. 275

Now, whenever a geologist sees the results of some great
force and those results are similar to the phenomena produced
by glaciers, he concludes that at some previous time the con-
ditions were such as to make it possible for glaciers to exist in
the locality in which his observations were made, for no other

rce could produce them.

2 He reasons that all affects must be referred to secondary causes.

i other words, law governs all phenomena, and forces are so
balanced as to produce all known and unknown phenomena.
All events that have transpired in the development and con-
figuration of the earth have been brought about by law. In
the formation of glaciers certain laws are obeyed, and those
iws are always obeyed unless an equilibrium is sustained be-
veen them and some other laws are overbalanced.

When the conditions are favorable for the action of glacial
laws glaciers will be found. The same principle holds good
in the distribution of life.

3. The forces in existence to-day are capable of producing all
phenomena that have and may occur. Therefore, the geologist
must study the methods by which they are producing changes
at present, and thereby be able to judge of what took place
ages ago, and the manner in which great events trans-
pired. In other words, the past is understood by the present
and to some extent the future may also be understood. No new
law is, nor has been, necessary for the explanation of phe-
nomena and, therefore, there have been no accidental happen-
ings. There may be laws that man has not as yet learned the
nature of, and they may be so balanced as to be beyond man's
comprehension, but that there are being or have been created
new laws, and that there are accidents, the geologist does not
admit.

4. The earth is undergoing and therefore has undergone changes.
He sees this in studying the phenomena of denudation and
disintegration. He sees that the mountains are being de-
stroyed by chemical and physical agencies, and that they are
being gradually carried into the valleys, and then into the
sea. This, he reasons, must have been going on ever since the
first continent made its apppearance.

276 The American Naturalist. [April,

5. Finally, from a consideration of the above principles, the
geologist realizes that his work must be systematic, and that the
bulk of it must be done in the field. Field investigation is indis-
pensable. Laboratary work holds a subordinate position.

It is safe to say that geology has advanced more rapidly
than any other science, and the number of those who are mak-
ing a specialty is steadily growing. New periodicals devoted to
the science are continually appearing, and its literature is
quite comprehensive. Very little attention was paid to it in
our colleges at no late date, but to-day it occupies a prominent

The great advance which has been made is due to system-
atic field work, followed, by laboratory work, and the latter is
of but little value from a geological standpoint unless it is
based upon accurate field investigation. It is necessary to re-
duce to a practical formula the data secured in the field, and
to have a definite method of procedure, for without such,
much time is wasted, and many results that otherwise would
have been valuable are entirely lost. Mere conjecture must
not be indulged in, but " work persistently back from the seen
and known to the unseen and unknown," should be the
maxim. Conclusions must not be arrived at too hastily.

Professor Dana once said, " I think it better to doubt until
you know. Too many people assert, and then let others
doubt." Hence, in drawing conclusions from the results of
field and laboratory work, be sure you are right, before giving
publicity to them, and if a doubt exists, state it, and be willing
to change your theory. Dana says, " I always like to change
when I can make a change for the better."

It is obvious, from what I have said, that geology is a field
science. Different characteristics of the earth's surface cannot
always be taken into the laboratory for study at leisure, and
it is necessary to see the objects under study if we would ar-
rive at correct conclusions and fix them indelibly in our
minds.. Facts then become real, and we acquire a correct un-
derstanding in regard to the forces that have been at work
preparing this planet for man.

1896.] Principles of Geology and its Aim. 277

It is necessary to have a knowledge of other sciences if one
would make practical use of geology, that is, to understand
the many phenomena that are presented to him.

Natural philosophy and chemistry are necessary in order to
determine the composition of rocks and to understand how
they were formed and changed. Botany is necessary to un-
derstand paleobotany, zoology is necessary to understand
paleozoology, astronomy figures very prominently in the de-
termination of the relations of this planet to other heavenly
bodies. Anything that the telescope and the spectroscope re-
veal is of geological importance, and bears upon the past and
future condition of the earth. Mathematics is constantly in
use, and without that seiriu:e little or nothing could be accom-
plished.

The foundation work of a geologist, therefore, should be a
knowledge of the natural sciences, for without them he will be
materially hampered in his work.

Geology is practical as well as literary in nature. Every
agriculturalist would become more scientific, and would reap
better " crops " if he had a knowledge of the science, for it
gives a knowledge of soils and fertilizers. To the engineer it
is of great importance, for thereby he understands drainage
and the best methods for excavating. It is of great impor-
tance to the manufacturer, for he can better understand clays,
ores, fuels, etc., and in mining it is of great value for it enables
the miner to understand the nature of the rock in which the
metals occur and assists him in " prospecting."

This use of the science is termed " Economic Geology " and
is of inestimable value and importance in developing system-
atically the resources of a state or of a nation.

The United States government has realized the importance
of thorough and accurate investigation of this vast country of
ours from an economic standpoint, and established the U. S.
Geo. Survey in 1879 for this purpose. Most of the states have
their surveys and work for the same ends, but on a smaller
scale, and assist, and are assisted by, the government survey,
and so work in harmony with each other.

278 The American Naturalist. [April,

Individuals are at work gathering information in regard
to particular formations, correcting mistakes, advancing new
theories, devising new plans for more thorough and accurate
works and imbuing students with the grandeur of the science.
What is there more sublime than a science that reveals the
universe in all its beauty and grandeur and as the result of
the balancing of forces which emanate from a creative will ?
Geology reviews the history of the planet from the earliest
known formation to the present. Back of this it goes by
retrograde calculation, and hence we have a complete resume
from the time "the earth was without form and void," to the
phenomena observed to-day. It tells us of periods of time of
immeasurable duration, during which was being molded that
upon which it would be possible for life to exist, and over
which mind should rule.

There is no science which presents so many problems to be
studied, nor in which so much of interest can be taken. It
carries one over plains, up the rugged mountains and down
into valleys. On every hand is found something new upon
which to concentrate the mind, and which demands a satis-
factory explanation. How came these plains, these moun-
tains, these valleys ? How came those masses of rock, thous-
ands of feet high ? Why is sandstone here, limestone there,
and granite yonder? What mean those remains of animals and
plants that are not in existence to-day? Why are those
masses of rock in every conceivable position ? Whence came
the waters and the land ? The plants and animals ? Is there
a reason for all we see? Are these things accidental, or was
there a purpose in their formation ?

And so questions crowd upon us, and fill us with wonder
and admiration, and with a determination not to be satisfied
until they are answered. We see that law is at work, fashion-
ing the universe, and we have brought very forcibly to our
minds the fact that there was a purpose involved in the crea-
tion of the universe, and that from this realized grand concep-
tion is being evolved a divine purpose. That which at first
appeared to be outside the domain of law, is seen to be the re-
sult of the balancing of forces ; and we come to realize the fact

1896.] Life Before FomU. 279

that law pervades the universe, and although we do not know
as yet the way in which these laws are balanced to produce
all phenomena, that they are so balanced as to produce har-
mony, and that in proportion as the human mind develops it
will be capable of grappling with problems that are not now
within its reach.

LIFE BEFORE FOSSILS.
By Charles Morris.
(Continued from page 188.)

Such a new stage of existence may have been essayed fre-
quently. The dwellers in the early seas, in their descents
below the surface, must often have come into contact with the
bottom, and at times temporarily rested upon it. This contact
with hard substance doubtless produced some effect upon them,
and certain variations in structure may have proved of advan-
tage in these new circumstances and been retained and further
developed. Particularly if food was found there, and habita-
tion on or near the bottom was thus encouraged, would such
favoring variations tend to be preserved.

But, as has been said, myriads of years may have passed in
the slow development of swimming pelagic animals before
this phase of evolution was completed. And, perhaps, not
until this was fully accomplished did contact with the bottom
set in train a new series of changes, and in time give rise to
the greatly transformed bottom-dwellers. The change, indeed,
was a great one, if we may judge by the wide diversity in
character between the swimming embryos and the mature
forms of oceanic invertebrates, and must have needed a long
period of contact with the bottom for its completion. Yet it
was probably much more rapid than had been the preceding
pelagic development. Contact with solid substance was a
decided change in condition, and may have greatly increased

The American

[\,,-:

the preservation of favorable variations. And the area of hab-
itation on the single plane of the sea bottom is so restricted as
compared with that within the many planes of oceanic waters,
that the struggle for place and food must have been greatly
increased, and the development and preservation of newly
adapted forms have been more rapid in consequence.

This may seem to bring us to the very verge of the kingdom
of life as it is known to us from the oldest fossils yet discovered.
Yet in truth we are probably still remote from it. We are
still dealing with soft bodied animals, not with those possessed
of the hard external skeletons from which fossils are produced.
There is no good reason to believe that mere contact with the
earth induced the previously naked swimmers to clothe them-
selves in solid shells. In truth, the earliest bottom-dwellers
may have long continued soft bodied, the hard case or shell
being only slowly evolved. The mantle of the mollusk, for
instance, with its shell-secreting glands, is not likely to have
been a primary accessory of molluscan organization. The
same may be said of the chitin-forming glands of the Crusta-
cea, and the analogous glandular organs of other types. Such
conditions must have developed slowly, and their appearance
was probably due to an exigency of equally slow unfold-
ment.

For now we come to another highly important problem, that
of the true disposing cause of the development of dermal
skeletons, on which there exists some basis for speculation.
In truth the fossils preserved for us in the Cambrian rocks have
an interesting tale to tell which has a strong bearing upon the
story of animal evolution. And this is, that all these bottom-
dwelLers, with the exception of the burrowing annelids, became
covered with what was probably defensive armor. They all
seem to have sought protection in one way or other, and in so
doing became in a measure degenerated forms of life, their
former ease of motion being now partly or wholly lost.

All this represents an interesting stage in the process of
evolution, and indicates some special exigency in life condi-
tions which the animals of that age could only meet by ren-
dering themselves heavy and sluggish with a weight of inclosing

1806.] Life Before Fouih. 281

armor. This new phase of evolution may have proceeded
very rapidly, many forms of early life disappearing, while
those that quickly became armored survived.

What was this exigency ? .Protection, apparently, as is above
stated. But protection from what? Against what destruc-
tive foe did these ancient animals need such strong defence?
Which among them was the rapacious creature whose ravages
imperilled the existence of all the others? Certainly not the
sponge or the coelenterate ; they feed on smaller prey. The
mollusk or the echinoderm, in their agile unclad state, may
have been actively predatory, but they were among those
forced to seek protection. Of the known forms the trilobite
seems most likely to have been the aggressive foe in question.
It was the largest, the most abundant, and, perhaps, the most
active of them all, its size and numbers indicating an abun-
dance of easily obtained food, while its great variety of species
points to the existence of varied conditions of food or methods
in food getting.

To all appearances the trilobite was then the lord of life, the
Napoleon of that early empire. Awkward and clumsy as such
a creature would appear now, it was then superior in size,
strength, and probable agility to all other known animals,
while its numbers and variety indicate that it was widely dis-
tributed and exposed to all the varying conditions of existence
at that time. What a hurrying and scurrying there must have
been among those small soft creatures to escape this terrible
enemy, from whose assaults nothing seems to have availed them
but an indurated external covering, too hard for its soft jaws
to master. As the prey became protected in this manner the
destroyer probably improved in strength of jaw, and there may
have been a successively more complete growth of protective
devices in the prey and of powers of mastication in the foe.
And thus arose the conditions which first made fossilization
possible, in the development of a series of armor-clad creatures
which were really late comers upon the stage of life, remote as
they seem when measured by our standard of time.

But the story is only half told. The trilobite, as it is known to
us, is under armor also. Not only is it clothed in a dermal
20

282 The American Naturalist. [April,

skeleton, but, in its later forms, is capable of rolling up into a
hard ball with no part of its body exposed. Evidently the
destroyer himself in time came into peril and needed protec-
tion. Some still more powerful and voracious foe had come
upon the field, and the triumphant trilobite was forced to
acknowledge defeat.

We cannot well imagine any of these animals assuming such
armor except for protective purposes. The weight laid upon
them rendered them slow and sluggish, fixed some of them
immovably, and greatly decreased their powers of foraging.
The only cause which seems sufficient for their assuming this
disadvantageous condition is that of imminent peril— a peril
which affected all known forms alike.

Whence came this peril ? Where is the voracious foe against
whom they all put on armor, even the preceding master of the
seas? No trace of such a creature has been found. In truth,
we cannot fairly expect to find it, since it was probably desti-
tute of hard parts, and left behind it nothing to be fossilized.
It had no foe and needed no armor, while lightness and flexi-
bility may have been of such advantage to it that armor would
have proved a hindrance. It probably was a swimming creat-
ure and thus left no impress of its form upon the mud. It is
to this unknown creature that we must ascribe the armored
condition of all known forms of life at that period, even the
later cephalopods, large and powerful mollusks, becoming
clothed in a cumbrous defensive shell, which they were obliged
to drag about with them wherever they went.

It is a strange state of affairs which thus unfolds before our
eyes. All the life we know of seems diligentlv arming itself
against some terrible enemy, which itself has utterly vanished
and left as the only evidence of its existence this display of
universal dread. The creature in question would appear to
have been without internal or external hard skeleton and with-
out teeth, trusting to indurated jaws for mastication. At a later
date, when its prey became less easily destroyed, teeth may
have developed, and it is possible that we have remains of
them in the hard, cone-like, minute substances found in the
lower Silurian strata, and known as conodonts

1R»6.] Life Before Fomh. 283

If we may try and rebuild this vanished beast of prey from
conjecture, aided by collateral evidence, we should consider it
an elongated, flexible form, developed from some swimming
worm-like ancestor, perhaps like the Ascidian embryo, stiff-
ened internally by a cord of firm flesh extending lengthwise
through the body, and moving not by cilia, but by the aid of
fleshy side flaps, the progenitors of the fin. We conjecture it
to have been, in short, the early stage of the fish, a creature
perhaps of considerable size and strength, due to the abund-
ance of easily obtained food, but as destitute of hard parts and
as little likely to be fossilized as Amphioxus.

We may offer this conjecture with some safety, for it is not
long before we come upon actual traces of fish, and of a degree
of development which indicates a long preceding stage of evo-
lution. In fact, the fish in time appears to have been forced
to put on armor, as its prey had earlier done. Internicine war
began in the fish tribe itself. A wide specific variation arose,
with great differences in size and strength, the stronger at-
tacked the weaker species, and eventually two distinct types of
fish appeared, the Elasmobranch and the Ganoid ; the former,
represented to us by the modern sharks, being much the most
powerful and voracious, and holding the empire of the open
seas, while the latter dwelt in' shallower waters. The Ganoids,
preying on the bottom forms, become themselves the prey of
their strong and active kindred, and, as a result, the evolution-
ary process just described was resumed. The weaker fish put on
armor, in many cases heavy and cumbrous, a dense bony cov-
ering which must have greatly reduced their nimbleness, but
which safety imperatively demanded. It is these armored
forms that first appear to us as vertebrate fossils; the first fish,
as the first mollusk or crinoid known to us, being the resultant
of a very long course of development. As regards the Elasmo-
branchs, they, too, became in a rc
sufficiently to indicate any very t
selves.

There is little more which we can say in this connection.
The story of the evolution of life bears an analogy worth men-
tioning to that of the development of arms of offense and de-

284 TJie American Natu

[April,

fense among men. After thousands of years of war with un-
armored bodies, men began to use defensive armor, the body
becoming more and more covered, until it was completely
clothed in iron mail, and became rigid and sluggish. In the
subsequent period offensive weapons became able to pierce this
iron covering, and it was finally thrown aside as cumbrous and
useless. A similar process is now going on in the case of war
vessels, they being clad in heavy armor, which may yet be ren-
dered useless by the development of cannon of superior pierc-
ing powers, and be discarded in favor of the light and nimble
unarmored ship.

The analogy to animal evolution in this is singularly close.
After long ages of active warfare between naked animals,
defensive armor was assumed by nearly every type of life, ex-
cept the lowest, highly prolific forms, and the highest, which
had no foes to fear. But the powers of offense grew also, and
in time the employment of armor ceased, as no longer avail-
able, its last important instance being that of the ganoid fishes.
The later fish reduced their armor to thin scales, and gained
speed and flexibility in proportion, while in land animals
armor was seldom assumed. In several instances creatures
have gone back to the old idea, as in the armadillo, the porcu-
pine, the turtle, etc., but the thinly clad, agile form has be-
come the rule, armor no longer yielding the benefit that was
derived from it in the days of weak powers of offense. This
result is a fortunate one, since with increase of agility mental
quickness has come into play, the result being a development
of the mind in place of the old development that was almost
wholly confined to the body. In the highest form of all, that
of man, physical variation has almost ceased, in consequence
of the superior activity of mental evolution.

In conclusion it must be admitted that there are certain for-
mations in nature which seem to militate against the argument
here advanced. I have already spoken of the much questioned
Eozoon canadense. In addition there are the beds of lime-
stone and graphite in the Laurentian formation. But these
prove too much for the advocates of their organic origin. If
so large a fossil as Eozoon had appeared so early, the subse-

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 285

quent barrenness of the rocks would be incomprehensible.
And had coral animals and large plants capable of producing
such masses of limestone and graphite existed so early, the
absence of any fossils earlier than the Cambrian would be in-
explicable. It is acknowledged, however, that such formations
might have been produced by inorganic agencies, and the facts
strongly indicate that such was their origin, and that fossils
began to be preserved very shortly after the power in animals
to secrete hard skeletons appeared.

! OF NEW GUINEA (FLY CATCHERS AND
OTHERS).

(Continued from page 195.)

The Thickheads (Pachycephala) are of many species and
scattered widely over the Archipelago. Many have come
under trained observation only during recent years. Prob-
ably many more await discovery.

Pachycephalopsis poliosoma, Gray Thickhead, was discovered
by Mr. A. Goldie in Southeastern New Guinea, and owing to
its distinctive coloration was classed as a new genus. It is
really one of a group of birds which might form a subgenus
and is accordingly so divided by Mr. Gadow. Above the gen-
eral color is dark gray, almost brown, with the head still
darker. The square, rather short tail is also dull of hue. Be-
neath is dull gray, lighter on the abdomen and tail coverts,
whitish to white on the jugulum, throat, chin and side face.
It is a pretty, soft colored little bird about 6 inches long, suffi-
cientlv numerous among the mountains of the Astrolabe
range to be called common.

Pachycephala melanara ranges widely over Northern Aus-
tralia and the Archipelago. The general color above is olive-
green ; wing coverts, tail, head and an irregular band passing

286 The American Naturalist. [April,

over the head, neck and breast, black and glossy black. The
under parts, with a broken collar about the neck, are a warm
light yellow. Throat a pure white. Whitish lines the under
side of the wings and tail. Bill and feet black. The female
lacks the vivid coloring of the male, being brownish where he
is a jet black, buff or whitish where he is a bright gold.
Length 7 inches.

Very like the above, but of reduced size, is Pachycephala
schlegelii, whose total length is under 5.5 inches. The differ-
ences lie in the greater width of black band across the breast,
in the line of black edging the wings, and the orange rufous
on the abdomen. The female resembles the female of Pachy-
cephala soror, found also among the Arfak Mountains. This
bird is olivebrown above, wings and head darker. The under
surface is a bright yellow, omitting the grayish wings and
dull thighs. Like her mate, the throat and chin are white.
The male P. soror is unmarked by the yellow nuchal collar
but is not without the black crescent. A bright yellow covers
the breast and abdomen. The head is black, the tail dusky.
Total length about 6 inches.

There are several other species of Pachycephala resident in
Papua, almost all bearing a greater or less resemblance to each
other. Among these may be mentioned without detailed de-
scription, P. hyperythra from Southeastern New Guinea whose
under parts are of the warm reddish color that gives it its spe-
cific name.

P. albispecularu, from the Arfak region, is another species —
a somewhat larger bird than its kind, gray and dark brown
in general coloring with white markings on the wings.

Still another is P. griseiceps or virescens, with local differ-
ences, a bird of the average length, somewhat diversified plu-
mage and a mottled head.

Smaller than the foregoing but with throat and chest cres-
cent more distinctly outlined, is P. leucoganter, collected in the
Motu country. P. leucostigma, from the northeast, is consider-
ably mottled, with much rufous on the under parts, the usual
white in this instance somewhat discolored, on the throat, and
much streaked on the mantle.

1896.] Birth of New Guinea. 287

Pachycephala fort is has its habitat in the Astrolabe Mountains,
though found probably elsewhere in New Guinea. Its total
length is nearly 7 inches, colored almost entirely above dark
olive, below ashy gray. The head and mantle are dark gray,
the tail dusky, the back and wings greenish olive. On the
face are gray shadings. White prevails on the abdomen,
passing into yellow. The under wings do not differ from the
uniform cloudiness but are, if anything, even duller than the
body.

Pachycare flavogrisea, set apart from Pachycephala, is colored
a bluegray above, somewhat varied on the tail and wings by
black or white edgings, while the under parts are a " deep,
shining yellow, the yellow on the forehead and the sides of
the head and neck being separated from the bluegray of the
head by a broad dark stripe." Total length 4.5 inches.

If we look for those attractive little birds— the Titmice— in
New Guinea, we shall find very few, if any, specimens. One
is mentioned in the books, viz., XerophUa leueopsis, an Aus-
tralian species, abundant in Queensland but not so numerous
in Southern Papua. The little bird in question has a length
of 4 inches. Its general color is brown, ashy above, whitish
and yellowish beneath. Along the tail, neck and head the
brown is positive ; this is true also of the under wings ; else-
where, however, the colors are pale and indistinct, shading off
gradually, as on the sides and breast, into a clouded white.

Several species and subspecies of the genus Cracticus range
between Australia and New Guinea. These are Lanidine
birds of good size, strong of beak, black, white or gray of color.

Cracticus quoyi, a typical representative, is one of these dis-
tributed pretty generally over North Australia and Southern
Papua. It is almost entirely black and blueblack, the only
variation being in the shading and lustre. The length is
about 14 inches. Sexes alike.

Cracticus cassicus or personatus is more peculiarly insular,
being confined chiefly to New Guinea and its islands.

The bird is strikingly conspicuous in its contrasted black
and white. The former color covers the head and neck,
throat and chest, upper wings and tail, excepting the two

The American Naturalist

[Aj.ril,

middle feathers which are partially white. There are scat-
tered markings, moreover, of black, intermingled with white
on the back and wings. All else is a pure white above and
beneath. The female is perhaps not of such glossy plumage
and has less white on the back. She is also smaller than her
mate by half an inch. Total length 13 inches.

Another species from Southeastern New Guinea, collected
by Mr. Stone and others, is called Cradicus mentalis or spald-
ingii. This Dr. E. P. Ramsay of the Sydney Museum believes
to be identical with C. crassirostris, a species separated by
Count Salvadori from C. quoyi, already described, though by
some regarded as one and the same. 0. mentalis is about 10
inches long. The white is banded so as to divide the black of
neck and back. Chin black.

In addition to those not very happily named birds — Eupe-
tes— already mentioned in a previous article, two or three spe-
cies may be briefly described.

Eupetes incertus is colored above a warm ruddy brown, the
tail not quite so bright. White, bordered by dusky covers
the throat, side face and abdomen. Over the chest and along
the side body the plumage is rufous, the under tail coverts
buff. Bill and feet are dark. Total length about 7 inches.
The mountains of the northwest are the home of this species,
as also of Eupetes leucostictus whose breast is flecked with white
as its name indicates. This Eupetes is boldly colored with its
chestnutbrown head and mantle, and its glossed dark green
body and black wings spotted white on the coverts. Instead,
however, of the usual white throat, the throat is black, al-
though there is much white on either side. Black marks, too,
lie on the face near the eye, the chin and upper breast. The
lower parts are gray with a bluish tinge. The tail is black,
the exterior feathers tipped with white, the middle ones oily
green. The bill, feet and eye are black. Altogether this spec-
imen is a remarkably fine one, unlike, in many respects, most
of its family.

Eupetea pulcher, discovered in the Astrolabe Mountains, by
Mr. Goldie, may be briefly described as differing from E. cas-
tftnotus (Amer. Nat., No. 343, p. 634) only in having the head

a decidedly dusky shade instead of chestnut, and a narrow-
black edging to the throat in place of a somewhat broad band
of black. Length 9 inches. Female a trifle smaller.

Eupetes ajax (Temm.) or Cinclosoma ajax, as Dr. Sharpe pre-
fers to call it, classing it as distinct from the Eupetes, is a
thrushlike bird about the same size as the foregoing. The
general color above is a dull brown, becoming darker near
and upon the tail and wings. The wing coverts, however, are
a shining black ; the same is true of the exterior tail feather-.
excepting their ends. About the head also there is consider-
able glossy black which runs down the sides of the neck and
becomes the sole color of the throat and upper breast.

White, which appears on the face, is seen on the underparts
sometimes rimmed with a streak of black, as on the breast
and abdomen, sometimes intermixed with it as on the tail and
wing coverts. The sides of the body are of a ruddy tinge.

The general color of Eupetes nigricrwms above, including
the tail and wings, is bluish, becoming dark, almost black
towards the wing extremities, with bluish margins. On the
face, especially about the eye there is much black ; a band of
the same runs around the neck, bordering the pure white
throat. White spots the cheeks, also enclosed by black. The
under parts are a slate color, with a bluish cast ; this is true as
well of the tail and under wing. Length 8 inches. The fe-
male is similar though a little smaller. The male lacks the
clear stripe of white above the eye, which the female possesses.
Habitat, Southeastern New Guinea.

Of the Drymoedus, a group allied with the Eupetes, a species
named Drymoxdn* beccarii is the inhabitant of Southern New-
Guinea and the neighboring islands. The color of this pretty
bird is a warm brown above, the head darker, the wings pale
brown and black with white tips. The tail is similarly
marked. White and black markings diversify the side face
about the eye. The rest of the face and throat are clear white.
The under parts are a buff, more or less variable ; the crissum
a dark brown. As on the wings above, so below the colora-
tion contains bars of white in addition to the dusky brown.
The bill is black. The length is about 7 inches.

Naturalist. [April,

Another bird of kindred species and not very unlike in
plumage is Orthonyx novseguineae. In this case, however, the
white on the under surface is far more extended. This hue is
intruded upon by brown and black. The white above is less
developed.

Pomatorhinus imdorii of the same family does not differ
greatly in appearance. It is rather longer than the preceding
and of a prevailing brown or russet, shaded more or less. Its
length is about 8 inches. The female is like the male, per-
haps a trifle larger in size.

A much smaller genus of birds is Crateroscelis, represented
in New Guinea by two species, C. murina and C. monarcha.
Here the ground color is still brown, brighter on the tail,
darker on the head. Even the throat which is white is
slightly tinged. So, too, the abdomen and lower parts gener-
ally. Total length 4.5 inches. The latter species has more
white upon the under body, otherwise is mainly like the pre-
ceding.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Murray's Introduction to the Study of Sea- Weeds.1— In

this work from the press of Macmillan& Co., George Murray has given
us a book which will be of much service to those beginning the study
phycology. The introduction treats briefly of the history of phycology,
of the geographical and littoral distribution, and the structure of sea-
weeds, and there is appended thereto some valuable information on the
collection and preservation of material. Following the introduction
there is given a well selected list of eighty books and papers on phycol-
ogy. The book is illustrated by eight full paged colored plates— four
on the red, two on the green and two on the brown sea-weeds— and
eighty-eight figures in the text. The figures in the colored plates are
somewhat crowded, and the specimens figured are in some cases rather
1 An Introduction to the Stndy of Sea- weeds, by George Murray, F. R. S. E.,
F. L. S., Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. With eight col-
ored plates and eighty-eight other illustrations. London,
New York, 1895, 271 pp., 12 mo.

1896.] Recent Literature. 291

fragmentary, but the figures in the test an
having been taken from the recent works
and the author.

Five sub-classes are recognized, i. e., Phmtphymr, Chlor<>i>hycnc
Di<iToii>>if-r,f, RhoilujJiiir, it and Cynitophtu-nT. The general arrange-
ment of the book is poor ; the more complex groups are treated of first
and the simpler last, except in tie > the reverse

order is followed. The Rhodophycece moreover " present so many dif-
ficulties to be understood only after the study of other groups that the
author has chosen the Phceophycece with its familiar forms of sea-
wracks and tangles for the first sub-class. The Chforopkyeem and
Diatomaeece follow naturally. The Rhodophycece next make a series
by themselves, and finally, come the simple Cyanophycra;. In the
I'lurnp/nime seventeen orders are recognized which are the same as
those of Kiellman in Engler and Prantl's Pflaitzenfamilien with a few
exceptions. S}»:riii<itni-h,ni.-< is placed in the Sjlt,rurfii"ir, n and .1 lyrin-
irifhin in the EIn<-Iii*t<i<-><i instead of each standing in an order by it-
self; the Dictyotece are placed between the Cuth >•< •«-, < r and Tl'nphr!-
daeece instead of being left out altogether ; the Ralfsiacece are placed
near the SphacelariaceCB instead of near the Laminarhicece as they
have been by Kiellman and other-. Splaehnidiwn, a monotypic

included among the Fucacecc, is placed in an order by itself— the
Splaehnidiaeea. It has been found that the conceptacles of Splach-
itid'mm contain sporangia similar to those of the Lunimiriwece instead
of oospores and antheridia, hence it is placed near that order. The
marine Chlorophyeece are treated under eleven orders ; many recent
facts as to their reproduction being incorporated. At the end of two
groups, the Pereclineie and the Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres are
briefly mentioned as being on the borderland between the vegetable
and animal kingdom. In the twenty pages devoted to the D\«iun,ae, <e,
the structure, reproduction, geographical and geological distribution
are quite fully discussed, but nothing is said of the arrangement of the
groups and very little of its systematic position. We can agree with
the author that the diatoms should not be placed in the PI
solely because they have a coloring matter closely related to that of the
brown sea-weeds, but we can hardly agree that a siliceous covering and
the presence of diatomine are sufficient to separate so widely two groups
otherwise so closely related as the diatoms and desmids.

According to the preface " the account of the Rhodophycece h based
on the scattered papers of Schmit

iean Naturalist

and the splendid investigations of Thuret and Bornet, has almost
wholly altered the classification of the sub-class." Four orders are
recognized, based upon the development of the cystocarp; the Mmalio-
nacea, Qagartwacpce, Rhodomenamc, < 'njptonnoia^v. The Bxui-
(jlureiB, including P, rphyra, are placed at the end of the R ho dophycece
as an Anhang. In the last ten pages the Oymophyeect are briefly
treated under two orders, the Xosto,;,e,,r ami Ch- ,•<><■<!<■<■„ Ceo>. Through-
out the work each order and in the larger orders each family is synop-
tically treated under four heads ; general character, thallus, reproduc-
tion and geographical distribution. In it are embodied the results of
the latest investigation on all groups, much having been taken from
the able investigations of the author and his associates. Errors are
comparatively few, one of the most noticeable being the mentioning of
genus Egregia as one of the Fucaceae (P. 55). It is again mentioned
in its proper place among the Laminariaceae (P. 85).

De Alton Saunders.

Taxonomy of the Crinoids.— The true position of a science in
the scale of progress is measured by the degree of perfection exhibited
in the systematic arrangement of the phenomena of which it treats. Its
chums to philosophic recognition are proportional to the accuracy of
the genetic relationships shown in its system of classification. If this be
true of a general science, it is no less a reality in its various depart-
ments. There is, perhaps, nowhere a better exemplification than the
Crinoids ; and no zoological group has made in recent years more rapid
progress towards a rational classification.

The data upon which the systematic arrangement of the stemmed
echinoderms rests are elaborately set forth in the lately issued work of
Messrs. Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer.2 It is of o-reat inter-
est to know that the advancement in an understanding of°the group
has been almost wholly from the paleontological side and that the re-
sults are accepted practically without change by the most eminent
students of the living forms. As is well known, the crinoids are to-day
almost extinct; but that in past geological ages they were the most
prolific forms of life. On account of the peculiar construction, un-
usually great opportunities are afforded for the solution of morphologi-
cal problems, and full advantage has been taken. Upon so firm a
foundation does the classification of the crinoids, as prepared by Wach-
smuth and Springer now rest, that it is hardly probable that it will
require radical change for a century to come.

N..rtl. American i Fossil Crinoidea CameraU : Memoirs Museum Corap. ZooL,

196.] Recent Literature. 2i»3

As regards the major subdivisions of the stemmed echinoderms three
roups are recognized: the cvstids. the Mastoids, and the crinoids.

5 groups of equal rank. The forms of the first
are earliest in time, lowest in taxoimnne [tuition, and are regarded as
the ancestral types of the other two. The crinoid type itself is a very
old one, dating from the Cambrian in which it is even then in a high
stage of development. During the Ordivician the cystidian features
had almost wholly disappeared. The crinoidal group is remarkable
for the persistence it has shown in preserving its pentamerous symme-
try ; and although the introduction of the anal plate so disturbed it as
to well nigh produce a permanent trilateral arrangement, the former
was finally permanently retained.

Neocrinoidea and Pakeocrinoidea, the two primary groups of crinoids
which were formerly almost universally recognized, are abandoned.
In their stead are recognized three principal subdivisions : Inadunata,
Camerata and Articulata. It is quite remarkable that this ternate
grouping of the crinoids is essentially the same as Wachsmuth origi-
nally proposed more than twenty years ago, and that often being com-
pelled by students of the recent forms to abandon it and to substitute
others, a careful survey in the light of recent discoveries of all crinoids
both fossil and living has clearly shown that the main subdivisions first
suggested are essentially valid and are applicable to all known forms.
The criteria for separating the crinoids into orders are briefly as fol-

1. Condition of arms, whether free above the radials or partly incor-
porated in the calyx.

2. Mode of union between plates of the calyx, whether movable or

3. Growth of stem, whether new plates are formed beneath the prox-
imal ring of the calyx or beneath the top stem joint.

The simplest forms, the Crinoidea Inadunata, have the dorsal cup
composed invariably of only two circlets of plates or three where infra-
basals are present ; there are no supplementary ossicles except an anal
piece, which is, however, not always present ; the arms are free from
the radials up. In the construction of the ventral disk two different
plans are recognizable, and upon these are established two sub-groups,
the Larviformia at.d Fistulata. The former has the disk in ita simplest
possible form, being composed of five large orals arranged in a pyramid;
the second has the ventral side extended into a sac or closed tube often
reaching beyond the ends of the arms.

294 The American Naturalist. [April,

The Camerata are distinguished by the large number of supplemen-
tary pieces which bring the proximal arm plates into the calyx, thus
enlarging the visceral cavity ; all plates are heavy and immovable ;
the mouth and food grooves are tightly closed.

The Articulata have to some extent the incorporation of the lower
arm plates with the calyx, but the plates are movable instead of rigid.
The mouth and food grooves are open. The infrabasals are fused with
the top stem joint which is not the youngest plate of the stalk. Ac-
cording to whether or not pinnules are present two suborders are
recognized : the Pinnata and Impinuata.

An analytical synopsis of the families of Camerata as proposed by
the authors and as now understood is as follows :

rhrachi'ij.-i 4ighthj npr^utnl i

Regarding the terminology employed, special attention should be

call-;

3 given of the \

they ]

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 295

by far the best collection ever proposed. American writers especially
will need no appeal to at once use them, not only in order to secure
uniformity in nomenclature but to insure precision of description.
Heretofore the names of the various plates or groups of ossicles have
been used in a rather haphazard way. Not only have different desig-
nations been given to the same part but the same title has been repeat-
edly applied to structures widely separated morphologically.

Chales R. Keyks.

EECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report for 1892-93 Geol. Surv. Canada (new series), Vol. VI, 1895.
From the Survey.

Boulenger, G. A.— Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum 2d Ed.
Vol. I, London, 1895. From th

Cayeux, L.— De 1'Existence d
Cambrian de Bretagne (Premiere note). Extr. Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, T.
XXL II. 1895. From the author.

Chamberlin, T. C.-Recent Glacial Studies in Greenland. Extr. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Soc.

Conn, H. W.— The Outbreak of Typhoid Fever at Wesleyan University. Extr.
Conn. State Board of Health for 1894. From the author.

Dall, W. II. and Harris, G. D— Correlation Papers— Neocene. Bull. U. S.
Geol. Surv., No. 84, 1892. From the Dept. of the Interior.

Gregory, H. D.— A Layman's Look at four Miracles. Philadelphia, 1894.
From the author.

Leboucq, H. — Zur Frage nach der Her] -1 : — Einsehal-

tung oder peripherer Zuwachs?

Die Querfortsatze der Halswirbel in ihrer Beziehung zu Halsrippen. Aus

Verhandl. der Anat. Gesell. Mai, 1894.

Linix.rkx. W.— Characteristic Features of California Gold-Quartz Veins.
Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Society.

Lucas, F. A —The Main Divisions of the Swifts. Extr. The Auk, Vol. VI,
1889.

Additional Characters of the Macropterygidae. Extr. The Auk, Vol. XI!,

1895.

The Species of Orangs. Extr. Proceeds. Boston So. Nat ILi-t., Vol. XXI,

1881.

Xotes on the Osteology of the Paridae, Sitta and Chame*. Extr. Proceeds.

U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIII, 1890-

Notes on the Osteology of the Thrushes, Miminae and Wrens. Extr. Pro-

. IV, No. -2. 1>>7.

The America,

[April

Lyman, B. S.— Folds and Faults in Pennsylvania Anthracite Beds. A Paper
read before the Am. -r In-t. Mining Kngineers, Oct., 1895. From the author.

Merriam. L. S. — Higher Education in Tennessee. Contributions to American
Educational History, No. 16, Washington, 1893.

Merrill, G. P.— Notes on some Eruptive Rocks from Gallatin, Jefferson and
Madison Counties, Montana. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII,
1895. From the author.

Morgan, T. H.— The Formation of the Embrvo of the Frog. Aus. Anat. Anz.
Bd. IX, Nr. 23.

Half Embryos and Whole Embryos from one of the first two Blastomeres

of the Frog's Egg. Ibid, Bd. IX, No. 19.

Peckham, G. W. cv E. C— Spiders of the Marptusa Group of the Family Atti-
dae. Occasional Papers of the Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. II, No. 2, 1894.

Spiders of the Homalattus Group of the Family Attidae. Ibid, Vol. II,

No. 3, 1895. From the authors.

Peter, K.— Ueber die Bedeutung des Atlas der Amphibien. Aus Anat. Anz.

Zur Anatomie von Scolecomorphii* kirkii. Aus Berichte dernaturf. GeselL

zu Freiburg i. B. Bd. IX, Heft. 3. From the author.

Raspail, X.— Duree de l'incubation de 1' oeuf du Coucou et de l'e'ducation du
jeune^dans le nid. Extr. Mem. Soc. Zool. de France, 1895. From the author.

Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. VII. Norwalk, Ohio, 1893.

Robertson, C— Flowers and Insects, XII, XIII, XIV. Extr. Bot. Gazette,
Vol. XIX.

Notes on Bees, with descriptions of new species. Third Paper. Extr.

Trans. Entom. Soc, XXII, 1895. From the author.

Harshberger on the Origin of our Vernal Flora. Extr. Science N. S.,

Vol. 1, 1895.

Rotzell, W. E.— Some Vestigial Structures in Man. Extr. Hahnemannian
Monthly, June, 1895. From the author.

Seventh Annual Report, 1894, of the Agric. Exper. Station of the Colorado
Agric. College, Fort Collins.

Siebenrock, F.— Zur Kenntniss des Rumpfskeletes der Scincoiden, Anguiden
und Gerrhosauriden. Extr. Ann. K. K. Naturh. Hofmus. Bd., X, 1895. From

Simpson, C. T.— Distribution of the Land and Freshwater Mollusks of the
West Indian Region, and their evidence with regard to past changes of land and
sea. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIL Washington, 1894. From
the author.

Sixth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Agric. Exper. Station, 1893, Part
II. From C. O. Flagg.

Smith, E. T.— Bacillus tracheiphilus sp. nov., die Ursache des Verwelkens
verschiedener Cucurbitaceen. Aus Centralblatt fur Bakterioiogie und I'rimmi. n
kunde. Bd. I, 1895.

Steiner, B. C— History of Education in Maryland. Contributions to Ameri-
can Educational History, No. 19. Washington, 1894.

G.— Das Os intermedium antebrachii des Menschen. Aus. Morph.
Jahrb. V, Bd., Erstes Heft. From the author.

1896.] Petrography. 297

Thurston, E.— Pearl and Chank Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Bull. No.
1, Madras Gov. Mus. Madras, 1894. From the Museum.

Twelfth Annual Eeport of the Board of Control of the State Agric. Exper.
Station of Amherst, Mass. Boston, 1894.

Weed, W. H. and L. V. Pirsson.— High wood Mountains of Montana. Ertr.
Bull. Geol. Soc- Am., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Soc.

Winge, H.— E Museo Lundii. En Samling af Afhandlinger om de i det indre
Brasillens Kalkstenshuler af Professor Dr. von Peter Vilhelm Lund udgravede
og i den Lundske palaeontologiske afdeling af Kjobenhavds Universitets zoolo-
giske Museum opbevarede Dyre-og Meuneskeknogler. Andet Bind. Forste Halv-
bind. Kjobenhavn, 1893.

Woodward, A. S.— On some Fish Kemains of the Genera Portheus and Clado-
cyclus, from the Rolling Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of Queensland.
Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser., Vol. XIV, 1894. From the author.

Wright, M. 0— Birdcraft. A Field Book of two hundred Song, Game and
Water Birds. New York, 1895, Macmillan and Co., Pub. From John Wana-

Zittel, A. von.— Paleontology and the Biogenetic Law. Extr. Natural Sci-
ence, Vol. VI, 1895.

Grundziize der Paleontologie (Paleozoologie). Munchen und Leipzig,

1895. From the author

Scrotal Notes.

PETROGRAPHY.1

Examples of Rock Differentiation.— Yogo Peak in the Little
Belt Mountains, Montana, consists of a stock of massivei gneous rock
which breaks up through surrounding horizontal sediments, that have
been metamorphosed on their contact with the eruptive. A vertical
section through the south face of the mountain caused by a branch of
Yogo Creek has affored Weed and Pirsson2 and excellent opportunity
to study the relations of different phases of the eruptive to one another.
The massive rock shows a constant variation and gradation in chemical
and mineralogical composition along its east and west axis which is two
miles in length. In its eastern portion the rock is a syenite, containing
pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, orthoclase, oligoclase, quartz and a few
accessories. The pyroxene is a pale green diopside and the hornblende
a brownish-green variety. The latter is thought to be paramorphic
after the former. In structure the syenite is hypidiomorphic with a

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

1 Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. L, 1895, p. 467.

The American XntumHtt.

[April,

tendency toward the allotriomorphic structure. Further west, about
in the center of the mass, the syenite changes to a darker gray rock
with a tinge of green, somewhat resembling a diorite. It is more
coarsely crystalline than is the syenite and is much more basic. The
minerals are the same as in the syenite, except that quartz is lacking,
but differ somewhat in their character and in the proportions present
in the two rocks. The augite is now a bright green idiomorphic min-
eral. Hornblende is rare and biotite abundant. The great difference
between this rock, which the authors call yogoite, and the syenite, is in
the relative proportions of augite and orthoclase present in them. In
the yogoite the pyroxene predominates over the orthoclase, while in
the syenite the reverse ratio exists. In the western portion of the rock
mass, the prevailing type is shonkinite, a very dark basic rock, very
similar to that of Square Butte.3 Augite and biotite are very abun-
dant as compared with the orthoclase, which in turn predominates over
plagioclase. This latter mineral is represented by andesine, a more
basic feldspar than that in either the syenite or the yogoite. Analyses
of the three types of Yogo Peak rocks follow :

SiG2 Ti02 AI203 Cr203 Fe203 FeO MnO MgO CaO BaO SrO Na20 K20 H20 P206

From a consideration of the nature of the three types of rock the
authors conclude that the Yogo Peak stock exhibits the results of a
progressive differentiation along its major axis. There is a progressive
increase in the ferro-magnesian constituents from the east to the west
and a consequent increase in basicity. All the components of the three
types exhibit the effects of this differentiation in the proportions pres-
ent in the different rocks. The Yogo Peak mass is thus an illustration
of a " Facies suit " as distinguished from a " rock series." In the for-
mer differentiation took place in situ, whereas in a ' rock series ' differ-
entiation occurred before the eruption of rocks into their existing posi-
tions. The facies suit of Yogo Peak together with the rocks of
neighboring mountains comprise a distinct rock series.

The authors close their paper with an appeal for a more specific
nomenclature in petrography— a nomenclature that will take account
not only of the qualitative relations between the minerals that make up
rock masses but of the quantitative relations as well. The Yogo Peak

3 Compare American Naturalist, 1895, p. 737.

1896.J Petrography. 299

rocks form a natural series with sanidinite and peridotites. Rocks
composed of orthoclase and no augite = sanidinite ; when orthoclase
exceeds augite = augite-syenite ; when orthoclase equals augite =
yogoite ; when augite exceeds orthoclase = shonkinite ; when augite
alone is present = pyroxenite and peridotite. In this scheme the term
augite includes also other ferro-magnesian minerals, and the terms
orthoclase other feldspars.

In connection with the article above referred to Iddings* mentions
the existence of a series of rocks associated with typical basalts and
andesites in the Yellowstone National Park. They represent like
phases of differentiation belonging to separate, but similar rock fami-
lies. Most all of these rocks are basaltic looking. They occur in flows
and dykes and sometimes as breccias, constituting the major portion of
the Absaroka Range. These rocks present a wide range of
within definite limits, forming a series connected by gradual transitions.
Three classes are distinguished, the first of which is characterized
usually by abundant phenocrysts of olivine and augite and an absence
of feldspar phenocrysts ; the second class is characterized by the pres-
ence of labradorite phenocrysts in addition to those of olivine and
augite, and the third class by the presence of labradorite phenocrysts.
The names given to the three classes are absarokite, shoshonite and
banakite. The distinctions between the classes is based principally
upon their chemical relationships. A large number of analyses, most
of which were taken from other papers, illustrate their points of differ-
ence. A comparison of the analyses, besides showing the close relation-
ships existing between the rocks of the three classes, shows also what
mineralogical differences may obtain for rocks of the same chemical
composition. The shoshonite from the base of Bison Peak and the
banakite from Ishawooa Canyon have practically the same chemical
composition. The former, however, contains abundant phenocrysts of
labradorite, augite and olivine, while the latter contains numerous
labradorite phenocrysts, but few and small ones of the other two min-
erals. The groundmass of the first shows much less orthoclase than
that of the second, and no biotite, which abounds in the second. The
author compares the series of rocks studied by him with the series
studied by Merrill5, with the series discussed by Weed and Pirsson and
with Brogger's6 giorudite-tinguaite series. The conclusion reached by
this comparison is to the effect that it maybe doubted whether the gen-

* Journal of Geology, Vol. Ill, p. 935

«Cf. American Naturalist, 1895, p. 567.

etic relations between igneous rocks can properly mark the lines along
which a systematic classification of them may be established.

Petrographical Notes.— In a phyllite-schist found in blocks on
the south shore of Lake Michigamme in Michigan, Hobbs7 has discov-
ered large crystals of a chloritoid like that described by Lane, Keller
and Sharpless in 1891. The rock in which the crystals occur is a mass
of colorless mica scales through which are distributed large flakes of
biotite, small blades of chloritoid, a few acicular crystals of tourmaline
and grains of magnetite. Most of the chloritoid is in large porphyritic
crystals imbedded in this matrix. The optical properties of the mineral
correspond to those of masonite.

In a summary of the results of this work in the upper Odenwald
Chelius announces the existence there of two granites— the younger a
fine grained aplitic variety and the older a coarse grained porphyritic
variety, with a parallel structure due to flowage. Pegmatitic veins
that cut this granite are looked upon as linear accumulations of por-
phyritic feldspar crystals. Many notes are also given on the diorites,
gabbros and basalts of the Odenwald, on the basic enclosures in the
granite, which the author regards as altered fragments of foreign basic
rocks, but nothing of a startling nature with reference to these subjects
is recorded. A gabbro porphyry was found occurring as a dyke mass.
It consists of phenocrysts of labradorite in a gabbro-aplitic ground-
in a general paper on the divisibility of the Laurentian in the Morin
area N. W. of Montreal, Canada, Adams8 describes the characteristics
of the members of the Grenville series of gneisses, quartzites and lime-
stones. The augen gneisses, the thinly foliated gneisses and the granu-
les of the series are all cataclastic or granulitic in structure. They
are regarded as squeezed igneous rocks. The crystalline limestones and
quartzites are recrystallized rocks that are thought to be changed sedi-
mentaries. Pyroxene gneisses, pyroxene granulites and other allied
rocks are of doubtful origin. In addition to all these rocks there is
• banded garnetiferous gneisses

which from their chemical

T metamorphosed sedimentary rocks.
T Amer. Jonr. ScL, Vol. L, 1895, p. 125.
8 Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. L, 1895, p. 58.

composition are regarded as in all probabil-

Geology and Paleontology.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Paleozoic Reptilian Order Cotylosauria.— A paper was
read before the American Philosophical Society, November 15, 1895,1
by Prof. E. D. Cope, on the reptilian order Cotylosauria. The fol-
lowing is an abstract of the characters of the order.

Quadrate bone united by suture with the adjacent elements. Tem-
poral fossa overroofed by the following elements : Postfrontal, post-
orbital, jugal, supramastoid, supratemporal, quadratojugal. Tabular
bone present. Vertebra; amphicoelous ; ribs one headed. Episternum
present. Pelvis without obturator foramen.

This order is of great importance to the phylogeny of the amniote
Vertebrata. The structure of the temporal roof is essentially that of
the Stegocephalous Batrachia, while the various postorbital bars of the
amniote Vertebrata are explained by reference to the same part of its

The palatal elements in this order are more or less in contact on the
middle line, and the pterygoids diverge abruptly from this point, and
return to the quadrate. The occipital condyle is single, and does not
include exoccipital elements (unknown in Elginia).

Intercentra are present in Pariasauridae, Diadectidte and Parioti-
chidse, and they are wanting in Elginiidte. The hyposphen-hypan-
terum articulation is present in the Diadectidse, but is wanting in the
Elginiidse and Pariasauridse.

The scapular arch is best known in Pariotichidse, Pariasauridse2 and
Diadectidse. In the two former there is a T-shaped episternum, over
which are applied the median extremities of the clavicles ; and there
are well-developed coracoid and praecoracoid. In Diadectidse3 (prob-
ably genus Empedias) the episternum is articulated by suture with the
clavicles.

In the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1892, p.
279, in a paper on " The Phylogeny of the Vertebrata," I wrote as
follows : " Moreover, the Pelycosauria and the Procolophonina have
the interclavicle, which is an element of membranous origin, while in
the Prototheria we have the corresponding cartilage bone, the epister-
num. This element is present in the Permian order of the Cotylo-

1 See Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIV, 1896, p. 436.

2 Seeley, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1888, p. 89; 1892, p. 334.

3 Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1883, p. 635.

302 The Am

sauria which is nearly related to the Pelycosauria." The examination
of the sternal region in Pariotichus has led me to the conclusion that
the episternum and interclavicle are present and fused together in that
genus, and also to the belief that the episternum is present in the
genus Procolophon. The structure is generally similar in the two
genera, and I think that Seeley is in error in determining the element
in question in Procolophon as the interclavicle only.* Gegenbaur
pointed out in his Comparative Anatomy the different (i, e., membranous)
origin of the interclavicle of the Lacertilia, but he included it with the
episternum under the same name. The true episternum is not present
in the Lacertilia. It is present in the Sauropterygia and Testudinata
and probably in all the orders with one postorbital bar, or Synapto-
sauria, while it is wanting in most or all of the Archosaurian series
and in the Squaraata. Whether the element I have referred to in the
genus Naoaaurus as interclavicle, is that element or the episternum,
must remain uncertain until I can see it in place. Its edges are thin,
as in the interclavicle of the Lacertilia. Of course, the Reptilian
order which is in the line of ancestry in the Mammalian will have an
episternum and not an interclavicle only. The Stegocephalia among
Batrachia possess an episternum, with, perhaps, an adherent inter-
clavicular layer as in the Testudinata.

Seeley describes four sacral vertebrae in Pariasaurus. In Empedias
there are but two. The pelvis is without obturator foramen. The
humerus has an entepicondylar foramen. The tarsal and carpal ele-
ments are incompletely known.

There are palatine teeth in Empedias and Pariasaurus, but none in
Elginia ; vomerine teeth none.

The inferior surface of the' cranium is known in Elginia, Pariasau-
rus, Empedias and Pariotichus, and has been described as to the first
three genera by Newton, Seeley, and myself. Pariotichus displays
generally s.milar characters. There is a pair of posterior nares and
a pair of zygomatic foramina, but no palatine foramen. The palatine
elements meet on the middle line, but gape behind. The vomers
(prepalatines) are distinct, and are well developed anterior to the pala-
ce ectopterygoid is large and has a prominent posterior border.

'. have stated that i

3 teeth on the vomer. Better

preserved specimens of Pariotichus show that the teeth are reallv borne
on the edges of the palatines, which are appressed on the :
in the former genus. Similar palatine teeth are present in 1 '

; are wanting in Elginia. Teeth are also present on the posterior
r, 1889, p. 275, PI. IX, fig. 9.

*Philos.Transac. '.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 303

edge of the ectopterygoids in Pariasaurus and Pariotichus, but not in
Elginia or Empedias. A character of the American genera is the
weakness of the attachment of the basioccipital to the sphenoid. The
basioccipital is lost from the only known specimen of Elginia, and the
sphenoid projects freely below it in Pariasaurus, Tbe roof of the
mouth in this order is a good deal like that of the Lacertilia, lacking
the palatine foramen.

The order Cotylosauria was defined by me in the AMERICA* Nat-
uralist for 1880, p. 304, and in 1889 (October). In 1889 (Transac.
Roy. Soc. London, p. 292), Prof. Seeley gave it the name Pariasauria.
In my Syllabus of Lectures on Vertebrate Paleontology (1891, p. 38), I
arranged the group as a suborder of the Theromora. In 1892 (Tra?is-
Amer. Philos. Soc, p. 13, PL I), I again regarded the Cotylosauria as
an order, and described the characters of the skull in three of the gen-
era, and gave figures of them.

Seeley has objected to the reference of the genera Pariasaurus and
Empedias to the same order, on the ground that the elements connect-
ing the supraoccipital and the quadrate rest on the occipital elements
in the latter, while they are elevated above them in the former. This
character would not, however, define orders, as both conditions are
found in Lacertilia ; but might distinguish families within an order.
However, Seeley's description and figure of the occipital region in
Pariasaurus bainii3 show that the structure only differs from that of
the Diadectidae in the presence of a large foramen between the supra-
occipital and exoccipital bones on each side.

The known species of the Cotylosauria range in dimensions from that
of the South American Caimans (Chilonyx, Pariasaurus sp.) to that of
the smaller Lacertilia, e. g., Eumeces quinquelineatus (Isodectes and
Pariotichus sp.). They range from the Coal Measures to the Trias,
inclusive, and have been found in South Africa, North America and
Scotland. A single genus has been found in the Coal Measures of
Ohio, which is represented by a species which I called Tuditaum puw-
tulatus.6 It is of small size, and as the maxillary teeth are of equal
length, I cannot distinguish it from Isodectes, which belongs to the
Pariotichidse. The other species which were referred to Tuditanus are
Stegocephalia.7 This is the first identification of a true reptile in the
Coal Measures.

5 Philos. Transac. Roy. Soc. 1892, p. 326, PI. XVIII, Fig. 2.

•Transac Amer. Philosoph. Society, April, 1874, separate p. 11. Report Geol.
Survey of Ohio, 1875, Paleontology, p. 302, Plate XXIV, fig. 1 (erroneously

i Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 177.

304 The American Naturalist.

[AKi

This order embraces, at present, four families, comprising 24 species
distributed among 12 genera, as follows : Elginiidae, 1 genus, 1 species ;
Pariasaurida?, 3 genera, 7 species; Diadectida?, 5 genera, 9 species;
Pari, ti hi.be 6 genera (of which 3 are new, viz. : Isodectes, Captor-
hinus and Hypopnous), and 12 species, of which 5 are new. Total, 29
species, 15 genera.— E. D. Cope.

Explanation of Plate Vila.

Pariotichus aguti Cope. From the Proceeding Amer. Philos. Society,
November, 1895. Fig. 1, Skull, from side. Fig. 2, Skull, with angu-
lar parts of mandible adherent, cervical vertebrae and scapular arch,
from below. Fig. 3, Skull, from above, with cervical vertebrae. Fig'.
4, Anterior two-thirds of mandibular arch, with adherent premaxillarv
bones, from above. Fig. 5, Humerus. N., Nasal bone ; R, Frontal";
Pff., Prefrontal ; Pof., Postfrontal ; P., Parietal ; Pmx., Premaxillary ';
Mx., Maxillary; J., Jugal ; Qj., Quadratojugal ; St., Supratemporal \
Sm., Supramastoid ; Tab., Tabulare ; So., Supraoccipital ; V., Vomer;
Pa., Palatine; Par., Paroccipital ; Ecp., Ectopterygoid ; Ps., Ptery-
goid ; Q., Quadrate ; Ce. Clavicle ; Ep., Episternum ; H., Humerus.

The Puget Group.— Sir Wm. Dawson confirms the opinion
advanced by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1890 that the formation in the
north-western part of the United States to which the name Puget group
has been given, extends into British Columbia as far as Burrard's Inlet.
This great estuarine deposit extends southward as far as the Columbia
River and from the coast line to the Cascade range, within which its
beds rise to a height estimated at from 800 to 5000 feet above the level
of the sea. They overlie the Cretaceous Chico series in the United
States, and its equivalent the Nanairao formation in Canada. The
latest views of paleobotanists and geologists of the United States seem
to be that these beds are of Eocene age and that the fossil plants may
be best compared with those of the Upper Laramie of the interior
plains. In so far as Canada is concerned it has been established that
the Upper Laramie beds underlie a formation containing animal fossils
of the White River Miocene period, so there can be no doubt as to their
Eocene age, and consequently of the Eocene age of the Puget group in
Canada.

A further confirmation as to this view of the age of the formation
in question is found in a collection of fossil plants from the vicinity of
Burrard Inlet. These were referred to Sir Wm. Dawson for identifica-
tion who sums up the results of his study as follows:

PARIOTICHUS AGUTI COPE.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 305

" A comparison with the flora of the Upper Cretaceous Nanainio
series shows that the Burrard Inlet species are distinct and of more
modern aspect. On the other hand, they are also distinct from those of
older Miocene deposits of the Similkamen district and other parts of the
interior of British Columbia. Between these they occupy an inter-
mediate position ; in this resect corresponding with the Laramie of the
interior plains east of the Rocky Mountains. They also resemble
this formation in the general facies of the flora, which is not dissimilar
from that of the Upper Laramie or Fort Union group."

" We may thus refer these plants to the Paleocene or Eocene, and
regard them as corresponding with those of the Atanekerdluk beds in
Greenland, the lignitic series of the McKenzie River, and the beds
holding similar plants in Alaska."

"This flora thus serves to fill the gap in our western series of fossil
plants, namely, that between the Cretaceous and the Lower Miocene."
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), Vol. I, 1895-'96.)

The Geological Structure of Florida is according to Prof. E.
T. Cox, remarkable for its simplicity. The underlying rock is a soft
limestone of Upper Eocene age ; resting on this are beds of phosphate
of lime; and covering the phosphate and limestone is a bed of sand
that varies from a few inches to 20 feet and more in depth.

The Eocene limestone is filled with fossil marine shells. It shows no
evidence of disturbance and is without a trace of stratification. It has
an amorphous structure and is of unknown thickness. The phosphate
of lime occurs in detached masses scattered over an area about 20 miles
wide, and exending in a belt, follows in general way the trend of the
Gulf coast from the northern limits of the state and beyond, to the
western edge of the Everglades on the south. The author believes the
phosphate to be the result of the mineralization of guano.

The covering of sand is found all over the Peninsula. It has been
blown by the winds from the gulf and ocean beaches. Mixed with the
sand is clay in the form of fine dust. In several localities the associated
clay has been separated from the sand by running water and deposited
as kaolin. This kaolin has been tested and found to be of superior
quality for the manufacture of the finest porcelain.

Florida is not a level plain. A ridge from 30 to 50 miles wide ex-
tends from the northern part of the state to the Everglades, having an
elevation of more than 230 feet in some places. From this ridge the
land slopes to the Atlantic on the east and the Gulf on the west.

The elevation of the Peninsula was due to that continental force, ex-
tended over a vast period of time, which brought the tops of the Rocky

306 The American Naturalist. [April,

Mountains above the waters of the Pacific. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Min-
ing Engineers.)

The Eocene age of part of Florida was first asserted by Prof. Eugene
Smith of Alabama, and this conclusion was confirmed by paleontologic
data by Prof. Heilprin, of Philadelphia. Dr. W. H. Dall subsequently
delimited exactly the area of these beds with the Neocene and Plisto-
cene beds to the south, east and north of them.

Notes on the fossil Mammalia of Europe Pt. II.— On the
affinities of the Genus Tapirulus, Gervais. — Tapirulus is one of those
aberrant types, where we find a curious assemblage of characters, which
to the systematist is a great annoyance, although to the morphologist

A superficial examination of the teeth has lead some palaeontologists
to assign this genus a position near the Tapir. Gervais1 established
this genus on the characters of the lower true molars.2 He referred
Tapirulus to the family 4 1 1 shall endeavor to prove

is its proper position, although this reference on his part I believe was
accidental, as he placed in the same family the genus Adapis. Gaudry*
has assigned Tapirulus a position near the genus Tapirus, and Zittel*
referred it to the Suidce.

Through the great kindness of Prof. Albert Gaudry, who has so
generously allowed me to study so many of the beautiful specimens in
the collection of the Jardin des Plantes, I have had the opportunity of
1 of Tapirulus, in which the greater part of the upper
of this skull I was at once
of Anoplotherium, and Dacry-

Tapimlus is slender and much elongated, the dorsal
contour is nearly straight, and the facial portion is strongly compressed
and slender. There is no preorbital fossa, as in Dacrytherium, and the
occiput is high and narrow, like that of Anoplotherium. The auditory
region very closely resembles that of Dacrytherium, the paroccipital pro-
cess is long, slender and the posttympanic and glenoid processes are
applied closely to the external auditory meatus. The brain case in the
Anophtke/riid<B is much extended anteroposterior^, being about one-
half the total length of the skull in Dacrytherium. In Tapirulu* the

1 Comptes Eend. Acad. Sci., 1850, p. 604.
'Zoologie et Palaeontologie Francaise, p. 173, pi.
3 Journal de Zoologie, XIV, 1875, p. 5.
*Traite de Palaeontologie, 1894, p. 338.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 307

cranial portion of the skull is shorter relatively than in Daorytkt mm

and with this decrease in length I observe a greater development of
the anterior part of the brain case, which encloses the frontal lobes of
the brain. In short the brain of Tapirulus as compared with the size
of the skull, must have been much larger than in Dacrytherium, and
this greater development effected especially the frontal region of the

As the Suilline type of skull was well established in the Phosphorites
or Upper-Eocene of France (Cebochcerus), I shall compare the cranium
of Tapirulus with that of Cebochcerus. In the latter genus the brain
case is very much reduced with the extremely prominent zygomatic
arches ; sagittal and lambdoidal crests are very heavy and the occiput
is broader than high. The cranial portion of the skull in Cebochcerus
is much heavier and broader than the facial. All these cranial char-
acters in Cebochcerus differ decidedly from those of Tapirulus and I
enumerate them, so as to prove that Tapimlus has no direct affinity
with the Suillines. The skull of Tapirulus somewhat resembles that of
the primitive Selenodonts, (Ccenotherium), but it is more slender and
its general form more closely resembles that of the Anoplotheridce.

It is, however, the peculiar structure of the teeth, which is the most
important consideration in studying Tapirulus. It is upon the char-
acters of the teeth that Tapirulus has been assigned its various positions
in the Ungulata. On a superficial examination of the upper true
molars of Tapirulus, they exhibit a certain resemblance to those of the
Tapir, but studied in detail I shall endeavor to prove that the molars
of Tajnru/us differ fundamentally in their plan from any of the
known Lophiodonts. In the first place the external lobes of the supe-
rior molars in Tapirulus are concave, and not convex as in the true
Tapirine molar. Again the transverse crests are straighter and their
relation to the external lobes differ from those of the Tapirs tooth. At
the junction of the transverse crests and the external lobes there is a
strong notch, and in one specimen I can detect a faint trace of the
intermediate tubercles.

The superior molars of the Anophtheriidcz. as is well known, have
deeply concave external lobes, the protoconule is distinct from the proto-
cone, the latter element being in its primitive bunodont condition. In
Anoplotherium and Dacrytherium the hypocone is selenodont in struct-
ure. In other words the form of superior molar found in the Anoplo-
theridce is a slight modification of the buno-selenodont type, it differs
from the exact form of this type in having the hypocone crescentoid.

308 The American Naturalist. [ApriIr

Now in Tapirulus the two external concave lobes of the superior
molars have nearly the same structure as those of Dacrytherium, and
the internal primitive bunodont elements of the crown, have been trans-
formed into crests, this occurred before the Anoplotherium type of
molar had reached its present stage of evolution. It is then not difficult
to derive the form of superior molar found in Tapindus from the true
buno-selenodont type, and I believe this to have been the origin of the
peculiarly modified molar occurring in Tapirulus.

The superior and inferior premolars in Tapirulus have the same
elongated form so characteristic of the Anoplotheriidce in general, and
like the latter group, the canines were not differentiated in form from
the anterior premolars. The lower true molars of Tapirulm depart
widely in structure from those found in any of the known genera of the
Anoplotheridv, although like the upper molars they are much special-
ized and can be derived from a less modified type, which was the
common stock of both Tapirulus and Anoplotherium. A peculiarity
111 the structure of the lower molars of Tapirulus is the presence on
each tooth of a well developed third lobe, hypoconulid, which projects
posteriorly a considerable distance. The portion of the molar crown
anterior to the hypoconulid consists of two high transverse crests the
antero-external termination of the front crest exhibiting a rudiment of
the anterior spur, which is so largely developed in all the other genera
of the AnophfheHdtt. The lower jaw in Tapirulus is long and ex-
tremely slender and its form closely resembles that of Dacrytherimn.

In conclusion I believe the natural position of Tapirulus is in a sub-
family of the Anoplotheriidce, and that both Tapirulus and Aunplnther-
ium have been derived from a common stock, the ancestral form hav-
ing had the pure type of buno-selenodont molar. As already shown
above, the resemblance in structure of the molars of Tapirulus to that
of the Tapir is not exact, the Tapirs tooth having been derived direct
from the bunodont type (See Euprotogonia and Systemodon^
III.
On the validity, „„, systematic position „( Mi.rfntherimn Filhol— The
genus MLrtotheriim* is another interesting form, not as aberrant in it*
characters as Tapirulus, but which unites in a certain degree the
feuillines and the Anoplotheroids. Prof. Zittel in his "Traite de
PalaBontologie" does not consider Mixtotherium as a good genus and
refers it to the milk dentition of Diplobune. I am quite confident that
1-roi. Zittel is mistaken in this determination, and I shall endeavor to
5 Mem. quelques Mam. fossils, Toulouse, 1882.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 309

prove that Mlrtotherium is a valid genus and entirely distinct from
either Diplobune or Dacrytherium.

The genus Adiotherium was described by Filhol in 1884. This
genus is referred by Zittel to the milk dentition of Dacrytherium, I can
not agree with Prof. Zittel on this reference either, as I believe Adith
therium to have been based upon the milk dentition of MLcMJu-rium.

The skull in Mixtotherium is essentially Suilline, but exhibiting some
characters like those of the Anoplotheroids. The form of the brain
case is longer and narrower than in Cebochoerus, and it closely resem-
bles that of Acotherulum which is one of the most primitive of the early
Suillines of Europe. The occipital region of the skull in Miztotkt > turn
is much broader than high, and is not constricted in the middle as in
[ktcryth* riant ; the occiput has nearly the exact form of Acoth, rulam
and Cebochoerus.

In the primitive pigs of the Phosphorites the auditory bulla? are
extremely small, in Mixtnfherium they are large. The basioceij'ital
region of the skull in Mixtotherium is rather long and narrow, and like
that of Dacrytherium. In Cebochoerus of the Phosphorites, the pecul-
iarly elongated and constricted snout of the pigs is well differentiated,
however, in Mixtotherium as well as Acotherulum the facial region of
the skull is broader and shorter, its form being more as in Daerytherivm,
Mixtotherium agrees with Diplobune and differs from Dacrytherium in
lacking a preorbital fossa in the maxillary bone. The general form
and proportions of the skull in Mixtotherium is very much like that of
the peculiar American genus, Oreodon.

The dentitin ,:'.!/ *<> • resembles that of the . !/«./// .*'<• "'«

in the absence of any diastemas, it differs, however, from this family in
the large size of the canines, which in form resembles more those of the
Suillines. The superior premolars are normal in form, and not elon-
gated as in the Anoplotheroids. The last upper premolar closely
resembles in structure a true molar, it has two external cusps, which
are intermediate in structure between the bunoid and selenoid forms.
The deuteroconid forms a crest with the antero-intermediate tuber-
cle, the tetastoconid is present, but small and bunoid in structure.
The structure of the superior molars ler from those

of Dij.hfnnn and Dacrytherium in the following details ; the external
crescents are united externally by a prominent mesostyle, which is more
constricted than in Diplobune; in Dacrytherium this portion of the
molar is open widely internally.

In the AnoplotheridoB the protocone is distinct from the protoconule,
whereas in Mixtotherium these elements are united and form a well

310 The American Naturalist. [April,

developed protoloph. In Mixtotherium the hypocone is selenoid in
structure as in Dacrytherium, but this cusp is much smaller and it is
much less extended internally than in that genus. I emphasize especi-
ally the large development of the mesostyle, and the presence of a pro-
toloph, characters of the upper molars of Mixtotherium which differs
decidedly from those of Dacrytherium. The structure of the fourth
upper premolar in MhMherium resembles somewhat that of Agrio-
chcerm, but differs from this genus in the presence of the postero-
internal cusp. In Dichodon Owen, the complication of the fourth
upper premolar is carried still further than in Mixtotherium, as in
Dichodon this tooth is completely molariform and selenodontin struct-
ure. However, I believe, that Mixtotherium has no close affinity with
Dichodon, as the structure of the skull and dentition in Diekodon is
quite modernized.

The lower jaw in Mixtotherium is rather short and deep below the
last lower molar, these characters differ strikingly from those of the
Anopktheriida, where the jaw is very slender and elongated. The
mandibuke are strongly ankylosed at the symphysis as in the primitive
pigs, Acotherulum and Cebochcerus, this is a character I believe seldom
found in the Mammalia outside of the Primates. The last lower pre-
molar in Mixtotherium is intermediate in structure between a last milk
tooth and permanent molar. It consists of an antero-median cusp,
bunoid in form, and posterior to it, of two external crescents and two
flattened internal elements. The structure of the inferior true molars
is like that of Dacrytherium.

It appears to me that the genus Mixtotherium is of importance phy-
logenetically, and demonstrates how closely the Suillines and Anoplo-
theroids are related. In the characters of the skull and the large
development of the canines Mixtotherium is mere like the pigs, but show-
ing affinities to the Anoplotheroids in the form of the brain case. The
structure of the molars, as already shown, resemble very closely those
of the Anoplotheriidoz and have gone one step further in their specializa-
tion by the development of a well defined protoloph.

Schlosser in his paper, " Stammesgeschichte der Hufthiere" speaking
of the origin of the Sullines remarks " die Herkunft diese Stammes ist
noch in vollstandiges Dunkel gehiillt, nursoviel diirfen wir alssicher
annehmen, dass derselbe wohl von der gleichen Grundform ausgegan-
gen ist wie der der Suiden." The Oreodonts are considered by Scott to
be related to the Anoplotheroids, and if this be the case it is not strange
that the skull of Mivtotherium resembles that of Oreodon. The genus
Protoreodon of the Uinta or Upper Eocene, has the five lobed superior
molar typical of the Anoplotheroids, and the primitive Suillines.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 311

In conclusion, jfixtotherium is then a type intermediate between the
Suillines and the Anoplotheroids, and has been derived from a common
stock, which also gave origin very probably to the Oreodonts.—
Charles Earle, Laboratoire de Palseontologie, Jardin des Plautes,
Paris.

The Glaciers of Greenland.— Prof. Chamberlin's report on the
Geology of Greenland contains the results of his observations of glacier
phenomena in the region explored by the Peary auxiliary expedition
of 1894. The seventeen glaciers visited fall into two classes designated
the southern and northern types. The former are distinguished by
ending in a slope of moderate declivity, the latter end in abrupt terminal
walls which rise to heights of 50 to 150 feet. The author notes here
that he is speaking of glaciers that end upon the land. Obviously,
those that reach the sea terminate in vertical walls through the break-
ing away of the ends. Not only are the ends of the glacial tongues
vertical, but in some instances the sides are so likewise. To some
extent the edge of the ice-cap itself is vertical.

The stratification of these glaciers is remarkable for extent and
ctefiniteness. The ice is almost as distinctly bedded as sedimentary
rock. The following points are noted by the author :

" In the vertical face there are usually presented two distinct divisions,
an upper one of nearly white ice, whose laminations are not conspic-
uous, from lack of differential coloration, and a lower one discolored by
debris, which gives great distinctness to the bedded structure. The lower
divisions is divided by very numerous partings, along which are distrib-
uted rocky debris, embracing not only sand and silt, but rubble and
boulders. Often the amount of this interspread debris is so slight as to
constitute the merest film, while at other times it reaches a thickness of

an inch or two In general, the rocky debris is arranged

in very definite and limited horizons leaving the ice above and below
as clean and pure as any other. It is very notable and significant that
the ice next the debris layers is the firmest and most perfect that the
glacier affords. The coarser debris is arranged in the same horizons
with the fine silt and clay Where ice is well lamina-
ted, as it commonly is, the laminations bend under and over the em-
bedded boulders. This seems to indicate that the embedded boulders
do not descend through the ice by virtue of superior gravity, but are
retained in the original position given them by the embedding process.
The extent to which the basal portion of the ice is laminated is remark-
able. In selected cases twenty laminations might be counted to the

312 The American Naturalist [April,

inch. These laminations are sometimes symmetrical, straight and
parallel. At other times they are undulatory, and in instances they
are greatly curved and contorted in an intricate fashion."

It was observed that the debris bearing layers were parallel to the
base of the glacier and were confined to its lower 50 or 75 feet, with
some few exceptions. Even at the border of the glacier clean layers of
white ice above the debris strata constituted one-third or more of the
section. This is contrary to the view that the debris habitually works
up to the surface and forms a layer there as it nears the border of the
glacier.

Prof. Chamberlain was fortunate in being able to observe the process
of introduction of debris in progress. At a point in the Gable glacier
there was found an embossment of rock over which the ice was forced
to pass and in so doing to rise in a dome-like fashion. One side of the
dome was melted away, revealing operations at its base. Combining
a number of observations, the author gives the following interpretation
of the process :

" The bottom layer of the ice in passing over the crest of the em-
bossment would be pressed with exceptional force upon it, and would*
as a result, be especially liable to detach fragments from it and imbed
them within itself. If debris were being pushed or dragged along
between the ice and the rock surface beneath, it would be pressed into
the ice and the ice compacted about it with exceptional force. As any
given portion of the basal layer passed beyond the crest of the emboss-
ment, the vertical pressure would tend to cause it to follow down the
lee slope, while the horizontal thrust of the moving ice would tend to
force it straight forward. If any given portion yielded to the first and
passed down the slope, it would produce a curve in the hardened basal
layer of ice. As a result of this, the horizontal thrust, instead of continu-
ing to act along the disadvantageous curved line, and against the superior
friction of the bottom, would be disposed to cause the layer to buckle
at the bend. The fold so formed would be elongated and appressed by
the continuation of the process and become a layer. The ice, beneath,
however, would gradually yield, and the debris layer would settle down
out of the line of maximum thrust and the conditions for a new fold be

Cases of true faulting and overthrust were seen, the rocky debris
being carried along the fault plane.

As to the method of movement, Prof. Chamberlin presents evidence,
which taken in connection with the intrusion and interstratification of
earthy material, would seem to indicate that these glaciers move, in some
notable part at least, by the sliding of one layer upon another.

1896.] Botany. 313

Several instances were noted where the glaciers had advanced over
their terminal moraines by riding up over them, but none where the ice
showed any competency to push the frontal material, even its own
debris, before it.

A driftless area was discovered on the east side of Bowdoin Bay im-
mediately adjoining the present great ice-cap. (Bull. Geol. Club,
Phila., 1895.)

BOTANY.1

New Species of Fungi.— The activity of our fungologists is in-
dicated by the long lists before us which have been published within
the last few months. From the Proceedings of the Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences of Philadelphia (1895, pp. 413 to 441) we have " New
Species of Fungi from Various Localities," by J. B. Ellis and B. M.
Everhart, including ninety-nine species. Many of these are from Col-
orado and other western regions. We note among the more interest-
ing species the following, viz. : Fomes alboluteus, from an altitude of
10,000 feet, in Colorado ; Bovista cellulosa, Lycoperdon alpig
from Colorado, the latter from an altitude of 11,500 feet ; Rosellinia
geasteroides from Louisiana; Phyllachora plantaginis, parasitic on
', in Wisconsin.

The same authors publish in the October (1895) Bulletin of the Tor-
rey Botanical Club, a paper on " New Species of Fungi " in which
there are described eight new species from the Sandwich Islands,
eleven from Florida, and six from Mexico. It is with much pleasure
that we observe that but two of the specific names are dedicated to
persons, viz. : Schizophyl robably a synonym for S.

commune) ant /// from Mexico. It is to be hoped

that the good example here set may be followed by others upon whom
it falls to find names for new species.

In the Fourth Report of the Botanical Survey of Nebraska, just is-
sued, fifty-five new species of fungi are described by Eoscoe Pound, F.
E. Clements and C. L. Shear. These are distributed as follows : in the
- . >- -
baceas, 1 (in the new genus Trickurus of Clements and Shear) ; Tuber-
ctdariacece, 2 ; Helvellacece, 2 , Pezizacece, 24 ; Bulgariacece, 1 ; Agari-
1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Besscy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

314 The American Naturalist. [April,

cacece, 20. In the last named family the name Qymnochilus is substi-
tuted for Psathyra of Fries (1821) which must fall, since it is identical
with Commerson's Psathura (Juss. Gen. ,1789). In the Pezizacece the
name Lachuea Fries (1822), being identical with Lachuan L. (Sp. PL,
1753), must give way to Sepultaria Cooke (1879).— Charles E. Bes-
sey.

Alaskan Botany.— In the Contributions from the U. S. National
Herbarium (Vol. HI, No. 6), F. V. Coville makes a report upon
the collections of plants made on Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in 1892,
by Frederick Funston. Mr. Coville's paper is preceded by a Field
Keport made by Mr. Funston. The latter contains much in-
teresting information as to the country and its vegetation. In
regard to the latter the author says, " The plant life of the region
about Yakutat Bay is characterized by the dense and vigorous growth
of a comparatively small number of species, giving the forests espe-
cially an appearance of great sameness. The almost level country
lying on the eastern side of the bay, between Ocean Cape and the foot-
hills of the mountains, is covered with a forest growth practically im-
penetrable. The great amount of fallen timber, together with
the tangled and heavy undergrowth constitute such obstacles to
travel that even the Indians who have lived here many years have
never penetrated the forests of the mainland for a mile from their own
village. The great bulk of this forest is composed of the Sitka Spruce
(Picea sitchensis), which in this region reaches a height of seventy feet.
This tree extends from sea level to an altitude of 2,200 feet on the
sides of Mt. Tebenkof ; but as one follows the coast line up the bay
from this mountain, the upper limit becomes lower and lower, until at
the entrance of Disenchantment Bay it reaches sea level, the tree not
being found on the shore of this bay. A large forest lies along Dalton
Creek, and there are several of considerable extent between this place
and Point Manby."

"The timber of the spruce tree plays a most important part in the
economy of the natives, as from it are constructed their houses and
canoes, and it is used in the manufacture of oil crates, bows, arrows
and other implements, while the smaller roots after being boiled and
split are used in basket weaving."

The other woody plants mentioned are the hemlock (Tmga mertm-
sriana), Sitka cypress (Chamceeyparis nootkatensis), red alder (Alnus
rubra), a willow (Salix barclayi), the elder (Sambiicus racemosa), the
Menziesia I . high bush cranberry (Minimum

pmtciflorurn), the blueberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium), salmon berry

1896.] Botany. 315

(Rubiis spedabt'/ls), devil's club (Echinopanax horridum), and black

The catalogue of species includes 159 species, of which 122 are An-
thophytes; 3, Gymnosperms ; 9, Pteridophytes ; 25, Bryophytes.
The ten largest families are as follows : Eosacece, 13 species ; Carduacece
(Composite), 10; Poaceoz (Gramineas), 10; Ranwumlaa ce, 9 ; S,i.nira-
gacece,9; Scrophulariace*, 8 ; Bricatece, 7 ; Pbfypodktcece, 6 ; JwinV
ce<B (Umbellifene), 6 ; Uras,irarr<e (Craciunr), 5.— CHARLES E. Bes-
SEY.

Aquatic Plants of Iowa.— R. I. Cratty has published in the
Bulletin of the Laboratories of Natural Science of the University of
Iowa (Vol. Ill, No. 4) some " Notes on the Aquatic Phenogams of
Iowa," which will be useful in recording the past and present distribu-
tion of plants which are fast disappearing. It is a pity that author
and editor permitted the antiquated spelling of Phanerogam to be
used. There can be no valid excuse for " Phenogam." The species
noted are Arisaema triphyllum, A. dracontium, Symplocarpus fcetidus,
Acorus calamus, Lemna minor, L.trindca, L. polyrrhizu, Woftfia hra-
ziUmsi*, Tupha httifofia, Spn-goxhon simp!,,,; $. andmeladum, S. eury-
carpum, Naias flexilis, Z«unbh\lh< p,dv>t,-is, Potamog>ton witam, P.
amjrfifvliu*, P. wittallii, P. Imiclntis, P. hrt,-rophylhix, P. illwoam*, P.
praloiifjux, P. perfoliatus, P. zosteratfo/inx, P. folios)!*, P. major, P.
p'.isUlus, P.tpiri'llu*, P.prctuiuhis, Trlglochin maritima, Sehenrhztria
putustrix, Altsma phihhup,, E'-hihodoru* ro4rntns, E. p'irrxhis, Sagit-
taria arifolla, S. latifolia, S. rigida, S. gruminea, S. rr^ta.— Charles
E. Bessey.

Another Elementary Botany. — Professor MacBride has re-
cently brought out a little book on botany for secondary schools, under
the title of " Lessons in Elementary Botany," issued by the house of
Allyn and Bacon of Boston. The author presents in small space es-
sentially that phase of botany with which we have long been familiar
in Gray's " Lessons," Miss Voumans's " First Book," " Second Book "
and "Descriptive Botany," and Wood and Steele's "Fourteen
Weeks in Botany." Whatever merits and demerits these works have
are here reproduced, somewhat modified of course. The lessons begin
with " buds," followed by " stems," " roots," " the leaf," " inflores-
cence," " the flower," " the fruit and seed." These topics occupy about
eighty-five pages, and while the subject matter is essentially similar to
that in Gray's " Lessons," the treatment resembles that of Youmans's
books, considerably simplified. The pupil is required to work out the

The American Naturalist.

[April,

details of structure by actual examination. The remainder of the
body of the book (pp. 85 to 207) is taken up with selected plants
whose structure is to be worked out, and here the treatment reminds
one of Wood and Steele's book and the corresponding chapters in Miss
Youmans's earlier books. There is here, however, a considerable im-
provement in the presentation of the matter, the pupil being led on by
questions which direct attention to different details.

A valuable part of the book is found in the appendix, where direc-
tions are given for collecting and preserving materials for study.
Taken altogether, the book is a good one, although we cannot agree
with the author that gross anatomy alone, and that practically confined
to the flowering plants, is all that can be done in the secondary schools.
We prefer the work suggested by the Natural History Conference, as re-
ported by the Committee of Ten, and know from much personal ex-
perience that the high schools are rapidly supplying themselves with
compound microscopes, by means of which the pupils are obtaining
some knowledge of the lower plants, and of the vegetable kingdom as
a whole. Neither can we endorse what the author says in the preface
as to the relative value to the pupil of a knowledge of the higher rather
than the lower plants. But with all these criticisms it must not be
thought that the book is a poor one ; on the contrary, for schools where
the conditions are such as the author describes and where they must so
remain, the book is a very good one.— Charles E. Bessey.

Botany in the United States Department of Agriculture.
—From the recent Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, we glean
the followings items, relating to the work in botanv. Investigations
for determining the strength of timbers of various species have been
continued in the Division of Forestry, no less than 13,000 tests having
been made during the year preceding the report. Measurements upon
a large scale of the rate of growth of pine trees have been begun and
some preliminary results obtained. Under this head the announce-
ment is made of the establishment of experimental plantings at several
points upon the Great Plains. In the Division of Botany the following
announcement is gratifying to botanists. " The herbarium of the
Department of Agriculture, commonly called the National Herbarium,
having out-grown its old quarters, was, by kind permission of the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, removed and well installed
in the fire-proof building of the National Museum, where it will be
cared for by the botanists of this Department. This herbarium is
steadily being built Up and enlarged at the expense of the Department
of Agriculture."

The new division of Agrostology, established during the current fiscal
year has for its special work the scientific and economic study of the
grasses and others forage plants. In connection with this work it is
the purpose of the officers of the Division to establish " Experimental
Grass Stations " in which the study of particular species may be more
readily pursued.

The division of Vegetable Pathology " has been broadened during
the year to include plant physiology," and the Secretary adds, " It is
believed that this will add materially to the value of the investiga-

The abolition of the " Division of Microscopy " is announced. When
first established, twenty years ago microscopy "was considered a sepa-
rate branch of technology, but since that time the microscope has come
into daily, almost hourly, use in nearly all scientific laboratories."
The Secretary very properly concludes that a separate division is now
" an absurdity."— Charles E. Bessey.

Notes on Recent Botanical Publications.— From the Divi-
sion of Botany of the TJ. S. Department of Agriculture we have John
M. Holzinger's " Report on a collection of Plants made by J. H. Sand-
berg and Assistants in Northern Idaho in the year 1892." Some new
species are described, viz., Cardamine leibergii (figured in Plate III as
C. sandbergii), Peueeda < contermina,

Orthotrichum hokingerii, Bryum sandbergii, and Peronospora gilice. —
Another contribution from the same source is the "Report on Mexican
Umbellifera, mostly from the State of Oaxaca, recently collected by
C. C. Pringle and E. W. Nelson," by John M. Coulter and J. N. Rose.
As was to be expected, many new species were found in the collection.
— With the preceding paper is a smaller one by J. N. Rose, entitled
" Descriptions of plants, mostly new, from Mexico and the United
States" the new species from the United States are Ligusticum east-
woodce, from the La Plata Mts., Colorado; Vloea glauca, from Ore-
gon; and Thtirovia triflora, a curious Texan composite for which
a new genus had to be erected. — From the Field Columbian Mu-
seum we have C. F. Millspaugh's " Contribution to the Flora of
Yucatan," which is marked " Botanical Series, Vol. I, No. 1," of
the publications of this new centre of scientific activity. It includes
the results of an expedition to Yucatan made in January, 1895, to
which the author has added species compiled from Hemsley's Biologia
Centr alt- Americana.— M. E. Jones's "Contributions to Western
Botany," published in the Proceedings of the California Academy of

318 The American Naturalist [April,

Sciences, is mainly taken up with the new species discovered by him
while acting as Field Agent for the TJ. S. Department of Agriculture.
The author says '* the long delay in the publication of the report
necessitates the early publication of the new species." The author
does not follow the "Rochester Rules" of nomenclature, and gives
some reasons for not doing so, but the reader is amused to find under
Oxiitrnpii acutirostris (Watson) the remark "should it be necessary to
reduce this genus to Spiesia, the name must be S. acutirostris (Watson),"
and again under Oxytropis nothoxys (Gray), the synonym Spiesia noth-.
oxys (Gray). For one who does not accept the " Rochester Rules "
this is indeed a remarkable proceeding, since it is the deliberate addi-
tion of two synonyms (with "Jones" as the authority) to what the
author calls " the mass of new names, nine-tenths of which are wholly
useless." — K. C. Davis has issued a " Key to the Woody Plants of
Mower County, in Southern Minnesota, in their Winter Condition " in
the form of a five-page pamphlet. It will be useful in the region for
which it is intended. — An interesting paper comes from Dr. G. Clau-
triau of Brussels, entitled Etude Chemique du Glycogene chez les
Champignous et les Levures," from which we hope to make extracts in
some future number. — Charles E. Bessey.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.1

Ambrosia.— By this name Schmittberger designated a soft watery
substance found in the burrows of certain beetles and supposed to be of
use in feeding the larva?. The exact nature of this ambrosia appears
to have been for a time in doubt, owing to the fact that it was gener-
ally seen by entomologists rather than by mycologists. Of late years,
however, it has been conceded to be of fungous origin, although
no one appears to have studied it critically. Since the appear-
ance of M6ller's book on the Fungous Garde'ns of South American
Ants, the subject of ambrosia has received renewed attention. In this
country, Mr. Henry G. Hubbard, who has long paid especial attention
to the habits of coleoptera, has repeatedly observed this substance in
the chambers of Xyleborus pitbescens in orange trees in Florida, and
has recently discovered it in the burrows of Corthylxs pinictati**im>'.< in

1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 319

the roots of whortleberry near Washington, D. C. Specimens from the
latter source were submitted to various students of fungi in Washing-
ton last autumn for identification, and the writer had full opportunity
to examine this substance. Some of the chambers were filled with it,
others partly filled, and others free from it. It is a colorless much
septate mycelium, inclined to be constricted at the septa, and in places
consisting of rounded, nearly iso-diametric, colorless, rather thick-walled
cells, not sufficiently differentiated from the mycelium to be considered
as true spores. It appears to be the mycelial or oidial stage of some
higher fungus, probably of some Ascomycete. From its dutribatkffl
in the burrows and the behavior of the beetles toward it, there can be
little doubt that it serves them for food. Whether like the ants they
actually cultivate it, is another question and one more difficult to solve.
In Germany, where this ambrosia was first discovered, Prof. R. Goethe,
Director of the Royal Lehranstalt fur Obst-Wein-und Gartenbau zu
Geisenheim am Rhein, has recently published an account of its discov-
ery in the chambers of XfUbcrua dupar. Prof. Goethe's' brief note
($.2o,Berkhte d. Kg!. Lrhr>tn*t<ilt etc.) is accompanied by a good
figure, judging from which the fungus appears to be the same U that
found in the chambers of Corthyllm puiirt.iti^imm near Washington.
This fungus is said to be the same as that found in 1883 in the burrows
of Xyleborw in cherry trees at Kamp am Rhein. Concerning the use
made of this fungus by the beetles he makes the following statement :
Seine Wucherungen dienen ganz unzweiflehaft den Kafern zur
Nahrung, denn man sieht deutlich, wie der Ueberzug stiickweise
abgeweidet wird. Further study of this subject would undoubtedly
bring to light many interesting things. In the next number of the
Naturalist I hope to publish a note from Mr. Hubbard on this sub-
ject.— Erwin F. Smith.

"White Ants as Cultivators of Fungi.— In connection with the
preceding it may be worth while to reprint part of a note which ap-
peared in Grevillea, June, 1874, p. 165-6, relative to the occurrence of
fungi in the nests of termites in India. A writer in the <;.„*,»,•*'
Chronicle stated that he had never seen any fungi on or in nests of white
ants except very small ones less than the size of a pin head. In op-
position to this Mr. W. F. Gibbon, Doolha, Goruckpore, wrote to the
Horticultural Society of India as follows: "I send you now a bottle
containing mushrooms I extracted a few days ago from the center of a
white ant hillock. When I collected them they were in appearance
like asparagus, over 14 inches in length, and the people about here

320 "The American Naturalist. [April,

consider them particularly good eating, partaking of them both raw
and cooked. When I read the above article in your Society's Journal
somewhat over a year ago, I was then aware that mushrooms existed
in the interior of ant hills, for I had often seen them, but I did not
know their season of sprouting, and whenever I searched was unsuc-
cessful till the other day. I have now ascertained the season they
sprout is the end of August or the beginning of September, and I be-
lieve all ant hills produce them. These mushrooms appear to me
to proceed from a peculiar substance always found in ant hills in
this country (whether white or black), generally called ants' food, a
bluish gritty substance, like coarse wheat flour turned mouldy and ad-
hesive. In dry weather brittle, and in damp weather like soft leather.
It is this substance, under the combined influence of heat, damp and
darkness from which the mushrooms grow. As my experience is at
variance with the writer in the Gardeners7 Chronicle, you may care to
record it. # * * * t would like these mushroomS) if pos;ible> re.
ferred to some mycologist, and their names ascertained ; and I would
like also to know if the bluish substance, the ants' food, was collected
and treated artificially, could similar mushrooms be raised." These
mushrooms were submitted to Dr. D. D. Cunningham, who reported as
follows: "I herewith return the letter sent to me more than a month
ago, along with specimens of fungi said to have been procured from
the interior of a white ant hill. The specimens apparently belong to
some species of Lepiota, and are chiefly remarkable for the extreme
length and coarse fibrous contents of the stem. The occurrence of
fungi in connection with ant hills is well known, but in so far as I am
aware, those hitherto described as occurring on the hills of the white
ant belong to species of the Gasteromycetous order Podaxinei, so that
the occurrence of a species of one of the sub-genera of Agaricusin such
localities is a new and interesting fact. With regard to the material
from which they arise, and which must apparently be of the same
nature as the so-called spawn of the cultivated mushroom, consisting of
vegetable debris permeated by the mycelium of the fungus, it may be
noted that a similar substance is described by Belt as occurring in the
nests of the leaf-cutting ants in Nicaragua, and is supposed ny him to
serve as food— the ants culling and storing the leaves for the sake of
the fnngi which are subsequently developed in the debris (Naturalist
In Nicaragua, p. 80). Were this spawn artifically exposed to condi-
tions similar to those which it naturally encounters in the interior of
the hillocks— heat, darkness and moisture— I believe that the pilei

Vegetable Physiology.

— Ekwin F. Smith.
Desert Vegetation. — Perhaps the most interesting part of Rev.
George Henslow's recent book, The Origin of Plant Structures, are the
two chapters on desert plants. The first of these chapters is devoted
to a consideration of the origin of the morphological peculiarities of
desert plants ; the second to the histological peculiarities of such plants.
A large amount of data are brought together, rather hastily it would
appear, going to show that the peculiarities of desert plants are the
direct outcome of the conditions under which they grow, in other words,
that these peculiar modifications, such as reduction of leaf surface, in-
crease of succulency, acquisition of spines, development of water storage
tissues, sinking of the stomata below the level of the surface, excessive
development of cuticle, of wax, or of hairiness, change from annual to
biennial or perennial, increased length of roots, etc., are all brought
about by the direct action of environment on the plant. "Natural
selection," in the author's own words, " plays no part in the origin of
species." These two chapters are well worth the perusal of all who are
interested in the study of the flora of our western mountains and arid
plains, and the whole book will serve to provoke thought. Other
chapters deal with origin of structural peculiarities of alpine and arctic
plants; maritime and saline plants; phanerogamous aquatic plants,
etc. The book is a companion volume to the author's Origin of Floral

A Second Rafinesque. — Die Pestkrankheih-u Unpvti<,n.d-,'<uik-
heiten) der KnU urgewachse ; Nach streng bakteriologischer Met h ode
uutersueht nod in rdllign l^brrriiistimmtiiig mit Robert Koeh* Entdeck-
ungen gcschildert vo» Prof. Br. Ermt Hallier, is one of the querest
books it was ever the lot of the writer to read. It was published at
Stuttgart in 1895 by Erwin Niigale, and contains 144 8 vo. pages and
7 fairly well executed plates. Concerning this book it may be said
that its author is either an undiscovered great genius or else a very
crazy man. About one-third of the book is given up to caustic abuse
of Anton de Bary and his students, relative to which it may be said
that Dr. de Bary's reputation is safe not only in the hands of his
friends but also in the hands of all who love clear thinking and honest
work ; and all this without defending any of the errors into which he
may have fallen. Another third of the book or thereabouts is devoted
to the description of old and well known species of Peronosporaceie,

Ihe American Naturalist.

[\pril.

little that is really new being added, but most facts being correctly
stated. The names of many of the species, however, are changed for
reasons which would not be recognized as good even by the most ultra
radical. For example Cystopus candid™ is changed to C. capsellw E.
H. because the fungus is said to grow mostly on Capsella and every
fungus should be named as far as possible from the host it infests. In
like manner Cystopus cubicus becomes C. compositarum E. H. ; Phyto-
phthora infestans, P. solani E. H. ; Peronospora sparsa, P. rosce E. H.,
etc. In the same way the author puts his initials after many old genera
e. g., Phytophthora and Peronospora, or substitutes other names, e. g.
Zoospora E. H. for Plasmopara, because he concieves the name to have
been originally employed in a different sense from that in which it is
now used or in which he employs it. The other idea running through
the book and occupying at least a third of it is that bacteria originate
from plastids developed inside of the cells of fungi, and that we shall
never make any progress in the study of animal and plant diseases due
to bacteria until we determine from just what fungi they originate.
The potato rot, for example, is due to bacteria developed from the
broken down mycelium of the fungus Phytophthora infestans.

"If now one keeps for a long time in observation under the micro-
scope such an escaped mass of plasma [from the mycelium or conidia
of Phytophthora] one beholds, just as in the cases already mentioned
by us, the freeing of the plastids, their change into micrococcus and
the elongation, division, etc. of these." (P. 82). In Peronospora fica-
riw also " the origm of the microorganisms is unquestionable, but until
now I have not been able to follow them further. These organisms are
visible in a fresh section in the interior of the leaf tissue of the host."
(P. 134.) The converse of this proposition is also true i. e. that under
certain conditions bacteria change back again into the original fungus,
the growth of certain yeast cells into mycelium being cited as a case in
in point. " If these [bacteria] arise from definite fungi by the finally
free development of the plastids, it must also come to pass that the
micrococcus, which is the first product of the freed plastids, will again
give rise to the higher fungous form from which it originated. Of this
the first well known and precise example is the history of the develop-
ment of the beer yeast." (P. 105.). The author who is a graduate of
one of the German Universities, formerly held a chair of botany in one
of them, and has been writing books similar to this one for the last 30
years claims to have seen the change from fungous plastids inside of
myceha or spores into genuine free swimming bacteria, rods and cocci.
This change is difficult to bring about artifically, requiring long watch-

1895.] Zoology. 323

ing at the microscope and the partial exclusion of air from the prepara-
tion. Figures are given of these plastids and of the bacteria. All of
which reminds us of the proof of miraculous healing by holy water at
certain wells, viz., " the well is with us to this day." The author com-
plains that nobody reads his books, but this cannot be charged against
the writer who has patiently waded through the whole of this one, to
very little profit, however, it must be confessed. The absurdities, how-
ever, are not so numerous as in the author's Phytopathology, published
in 1868. Therein may be found, full fledged or in embryo, most of
the queer notions here set forth and also many others.

Erwin F. Smith.

ZOOLOGY.

The Cruise of the Princess Alice.— The zoological material
obtained by the Prince of Monaco during the past summer cruise of his
yacht, the Princess Alice, is abundant and valuable. The fortunate
capture of a sperm whale in the vicinity of the yacht, off the coast of
Terceira Island, resulted in the acquisition of some rare specimens of
the animal kingdom which otherwise might never have been known.
From the Prince's narrative of the voyage we learn that the cachalot was
the " catch " of some Portugese whalers with whom the Prince arranged
to secure what portions of the animal he wished, especially the brain.
Unfortunately some days elapsed before the skull was penetrated, and
then the brain was found to be in too advanced a stage of decomposi-
tion to be of use for preservation. Meantime a large number a parasites
were collected from the stomach, the digestive organs, the blubber and
the skin of the animal, and the contents of the stomach secured for
examination. While in the act of death the whale ejected several
large cephalopods which it had only just swallowed, as was evident
from their perfect preservation. These were also obtained by the Prince
for his collection. Amongst them were three large specimens, each
over one meter in length, of a species probably new, of the little-known
genus Histioteuthis ; also the bodies of two other immense cephalopods
so different from all hitherto known that it is impossible to place them
in any genus or even family of this order. M. Jonbain proposes for
them the name Lepidoteuthis grimaldii. One of these specimens is a
female, of which the body, or visceral sac after prolonged immersion in
formol and alcohol, still measures 90 cm. in length, from which it is

324 The American Naturalist [April,

estimated that the length of the complete animal would exceed 2 meters.
The surface of the sac is covered with large, solid rhomboidal scales,
like those of a pine cone. The fin is very powerful, forms one-half of
the length of the body and is not furnished with scales.

When the stomach of the whale was opened it was found to contain
over a hundred kilogrammes of partially digested debris of cephalopods,
all of them of enormous size. The crown and tentacles of a Cucio-
teuthis were identified. This genus has hitherto been known only by
few fragments. The muscular arms, though shrunken and contracted
by the preserving fluid, are as thick as those of a man, were covered
with great suckers, each armed with a sharp claw, as powerful as those
of the larger carnivora. More than one hundred of these suckers
remain adhering to the arms.

Another cephalopod found in the stomach of the whale is provided
with a large fin, in the skin of which are enclosed certain photogenic
organs. The form of the body suggests a new species, but as the head
is wanting, it cannot be positively identified.

These cephalopods are all powerful swimmers, and very muscular.
They appear to belong to the fauna of the deep intermediate waters, an
almost unknown region. They never come to the surface, no do they
lie on the bottom of the sea. Their great agility prevents their capture
in nets, hence it would seem that the only way to obtain these interest-
ing gigantic creatures is to kill the giant who feeds upora them and
rescue the fragments from his huge maw.

Accordingly, for the next season's cruise, the Princess Alice is to
have, in addition to her present fittings, those of a sperm whaler, or else
to have as a compainiou a special whaling tender.

The further working up of the material in hand is being pushed for-
ward with energy, and interesting results are anticipated. (Nature,
Jan., 1896.)

Australian Spiders. — Among the new Arachnida reported from
New South Wales are three species of Nephila ; K Jteteherii, N.
edu-nrilni and ventricosa. These are described and figured by Mr. W.
J. Rainbow in the Proceeds, of the Linn. Soc. N. South Wales. The
author includes in his paper some interesting observations on the habits
of Nephilse and their supposed bird-snaring propensities. Representa-
tives of this genus abound in tropictll and subtropical region?. Their
webs are composed of two kinds of Bilk ; one yellow, exceedingly viscid
and elastic, the other white, dry and somewhat brittle. The latter is
used for the framework of the web, the guys and radii, and the former

1896.] Zoology. 325

for the concentric rings. These snares are at varying heights, some-
times within reach, again 10 to 12 feet from the ground, but tlwayt in
a position exposed to the rays of the sun. The diameter is also variable,
from 3 feet upwards. One seen by Graffe in the Fiji Islands (prob-
ably a Nephila) constructs a web 30 feet in diameter.

These snares are strong enough to entrap small birds. In the
author's opinion the web is not set for such game, and the spider does
not feed on her ornithological victim. In the cases where she has been
observed with her fangs in the body of the ensnared bird it is probable
that it is for the purpose of hastening the death of the bird in order to
prevent its injuring the web in its struggles to escape.

Spiders of the genus Nephila are easily tamed. Although exceed-
ingly voracious, they can nevertheless exist for many days without
either food or water. They pair in autumn. The sexes inhabit the
same web for a considerable time, the female in the center and the male
on the upper edge of the web. His efforts to ingratiate himself in the
favor of his mate are not always successful. It not infrequently happens
that he has to retire from her presence minus two or three legs. " Ulti-
mately says the author, he succeeds in attaching himself in the
requisite position, and performing the necessary act of fecundation."
(Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. South Wales, [2] Vol. X, Pt. 2, 1895.)

Autodax iecanus. — According to Mr. Van Denburg, Autodax
i'ecanus, a black Salmander first found in Shasta Co., California, is a
nocturnal forager. It usually walks slowly along, moving one foot at
a time, but is capable of rapid motion when necessary. At such a time
it aids the action of the legs by a sinuous motion of the whole body
and tail. In addition to being prehensile, the tail is put to a third
use. When caught the animal will often remain motionless, but if
touched will raise the tail and strike it forcibly against the surface upon
which it rests, and accompanying this action with a quick motion of the
hind legs, will jump from four to six inches, rising as high as two or
three inches. Mr. Van Denburg finds that the species has a wide dis-
tribution in California. (Proceeds. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol. V, 1895.)

Reptiles and Batrachians of Mesilla Valley, New Mexico.
—The following list may be worth publishing as a contribution to the
more exact knowledge of the distribution of animals in New Mexico.
It may be relied upon as correct, as all the species have been identified
by Dr. L. Stejneger, and the specimens are to be found in the U. S.
National Museum. The valley about Las Cruces, where most of the
species were obtained, is 3800 ft. above sea-level, its extreme sides rise

326 The American Naturalist.

[April,

to about 5000 ft. The records marked Lane Coll. are based on spec-
imens obtained by Mr. Lane of Las Cruces, mainly by purchase from
the Mexicans.

(1.)* Bufo lentiginosus v. woodhousei. Common about the town.

(2.) Ranapipiens v. brachycephala. Common in suitable places.

(3.) Amblystoma tigrinum. Not rare about the town. A large spe-
imen found by Mr. J. Schmidt.

(4.) Cistudo ornatus. Common about the town.

(5.) Sistruru* edwardsii. Close to the College building.

(6.) Heterodon nasicus. Close to the College, rather common.

(7.) Coluber emoryi. One near Las Cruces, April, 1894 (J. M.
Walker).

(8.) Pituophis sayi Our commonest snake. One specimen had the
head-scales arranged as in the so-called genus ChurchUlio.

(9.) Baseanion testaceum. One specimen.

(10.) Thamnophis dorsalis. Frequent, the commonest snake after
Pituophis.

(11.) Lampropeltis pyrrhomelas. H. B. Lane Coll.

(12.) Lampropeltis splendida. Lane Coll.

(13.) Diadophis regalis. Lane Coll.

(14.) Arizona elegans. Lane Coll.

(15.) Rhinocheilus lecontei. Lane Coll.

(16.) Liopeltis vernalis. Lane Coll.

(17.) Tantilla nigriceps. Lane Coll.

(18.) Leptotyphlops dulds. Lane Coll., also one obtained by Prof.
C.H.T.Townsend.

(19.) Eumeces obsoletus. Not rare near the College.

(20.) Cnemidophorus tessellatus. Common about the mesquites

(21.) Cnemidophorus per plexus. Lane Coll.

(22.)* Sceloporus magister. One in Coll. Exp. Sta., one in Lane
Coll.

(23.)* Uta stansburiana. Our commonest lizard, abundant on the
college campus.

(24.)* Crotaphytus wisldzenii. One. Remains of beetles in stomach.

(25.)* Crotaphytus baileyi. Apparently not uncommon. One had
two young Phrynosoma modestum in its stomach.

(26.) Phrynosoma cornutum. Common. At Lamy and Santa Fe
it is replaced by P. hernandezii, which in the neighborhood by Santa
Fe ascends to 7475 ft.

1896.] Zoology. 327

(27.) Phrynosoma modestum. Common. There also occurs a bluish

The Death Valley Expedition, much further west, obtained 56
reptiles and batrachians, of which only five (those marked with an
asterisk) are common to our list. It is especially noteworthy that there

— T. D. A. Cockerell, N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Professor Cope's criticisms of my drawings of the squam-
osal region of Conolophus subcristatus Gray ; (Amer. Nat-
ural., Febr., 1896, p. 148-149) and a few remarks about his
drawings of the same object from Steindachner. — In the Feb-
ruary ^Number of this Journal Prof. Cope makes the following remarks :
" Dr. Baur again denies that the exoccipital [paroccipital] articulates
with the quadrate in certain genera of the Iguanidse and gives some
figures of that region in the Conolophus subcristatus, to sustain his
allegation. Unfortunately, though he seems to have taken the elements
apart, as I suggested that he do, he did not put them together in
their original relation when he had them drawn. I now give two
drawings traced from the skull of the same species given, by Dr. Stein-
dachner. As these plates represent exactly the characters, which I
have observed and described in allied genera, I regard them as correct.
It will be observed that there is a considerable contact between the ex-
occipital and the quadrate. There is also contact with the supratem-
poral [prosqamosal] and probably with the paroccipital [squamosal].
The articulation of the quadrate with the exoccip '
Iguanidce"

To this I have to reply the following: 1. The single elements of
the skull of Conolophus were not taken apart at all. The quadrate,
prosquamosal, and squamosal of the right side were separated from the
rest of the skull, in such a way, that they remained together in natural
position. The corresponding left side of the skull remained intact.
All this was done two years ago, without the advice of Prof. Cope. My
figures were drawn with the camera-lucida and are absolutely correct
in every respect. I have two other skulls of Conolophus ; several of
Amblyrhynchus, Iguana and Cyclura. In all I find the same condi-
tion. I have not to change a single word in my original description
nor a line in my drawings. The quadrate is not supported by the par
I fope] in the Lizards, as Cope stated, but by the
squamosal [paroccipital Cope], the prosquamosal [supratemporal Cope]
taking also part, if present. The paroccipital does not even touch the
quadrate.

330 The American Naturalist. [April,

Colo., May 11, 1890. Food, Euphoria inda, one specimen, almost
whole ; Cidndela sp., fragments ; hymenopterous insects, broken, rather
large, thorax black, abdomen red.

(7.) Pyranga ludoviciana. $ . Shot by Mr. P. Lowe, Big Arroyo,
Colo., May 14, 1890. Food, fragments of a blow-fly (Lucilia or Calli-
phora) ; fragments of a beetle (perhaps a longicorn) ; and some green
eggs, apparently those of a Smerinthus. These eggs were numerous,
but I found no fragments of the 9 moth in which they must have been

(8.) Salpinctus obsoletus. Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Big Arroyo,
Colo., May 14, 1890. Food, fragments of bettles, including a weevil.

(9.) Geococeyx calif omianus, $ . Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Big
Arroyo, Pueblo Co., Colo., Dec. 5, 1889. Food, grasshoppers (Acrid-
idce), Ophryastes tuberosus and perhaps another allied species, and a
blue-green rugose metallic fragment of an unknown insect.

(10.) Ampelis garrulus, ? . Shot by Mr. \V. P. Lowe, Badito, Huer-
fansCo., Colo. Food, berries of juniper i ,Inni/,> ,-u* communis').

(11.) Aphelocoma ivoodhousei, £ . Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Badito,
Huerfans Co., Colo. Food, fragmentary >eeds (papilionaceous?), frag-
ments of bones of a small passerine bird.

(12.) Merula migratoria. Cusack Ranch, Custer Co., Colo., April,
1888. Food, seeds and geodephagous beetles.

Mr. Lowe is responsible for the identification of the birds shot by
him ; he sent me only the stomach-contents.

— T. D. A. Cockerell, N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta.

The Manx Cat. — A correspondaut of the Zoologist notes an

interesting fact concerning a Manx cat in his possession. This tailless cat

took of its own accord a mate of the normal type, and from the union

resulted a litter of three, which like the mother lacked tails. Friendly

relations continued to exist between the parent cats until six successive

litters had been produced, each litter in turn showing to a less degree

the mother Manx cat's influence upon the form of the progeny, as may

be seen in the following table compiled by the owner of the cats.

Litters. Tailless. Half tail. Normal tail.

13 0 0

2 2 1 0

Zoology.

■:,;n

t would be interesting to carry the experiment further and see if a
on of the Manx cat with one of her own race would result in restor-
with the same regularity with which she lost it, the power to pro-
« her own type. (Revue Scientif. T. 4, 1895.)
\ case of Renal Abnormality in the Cat.— Anomalous condi-
1 of the renal organs and accompanying blood vessels was recently
I* disclosed in a dissection in this labora-

tory. The accompanying diagram ex-
plains the phenomenon. The left
kidney was a miniature of the right
though functional. The dimensions of
the right kidney in another subject of
equal size as the specimen under dis-
cussion were found to be— length 3 cm.,
width 2 cm. and dorso-ventral thick-
ness^ mm. ; the left os is natural
being slightly smaller than this. The
dimensions just given may be regarded
as normal.

In the subject whose renal anatomy
has been here figured, the measure-
ments of the right kidney were as
follows : length 4 cm. breadth 2 i cm.
and thickness (dorso-ventral) 19 mm.,
considerably above the normal as one
would expect when the extremely small
size of the left kidney is considered.

follows: length 12 mm., breadth 8
mm., and thickness or dorsoventral
2-third the dimensions of the right kidney.
Upon hardening, staining and sectioning in the usual way the
glomeruli and uriniferous tubules were found to be normal though, the
presence of a small amount of fat in the kidney was noted. The histo-
logical condition of the kidney and the presence of the left ureter, which,
though smaller than the right was clearly functional, proved that the
left kidney was of value in the vegetative processes of the organism.
The right renal artery (m) was, as one would expect larger than the
left (ra). The postcava (pc) in this cat was divided very far forward
in the lumbar region to form the common iliac veins, causing the left

332 The America,, XaturaliA.

r-M-ni

renal vein (rvi) to empty into the left common iliac. This <
from the normal in postcaval structure is by no m

Letters in the figure, not referred to in the text are as follows : da.
dorsal aorta, cax. coeliar axis, a. m.s. anterior mesenteric artery, rv.
vein from right kidney, Rj. right kidney, R2. left kidney, or. and ari.
left and right adrenal bodies with accompanying veins. 17 left and
right common iliaes, U,„i,. iliolumbar veins ,/ ureters, umciist urinary
bladder. — F. L. Washburn, Biological Laboratory, University of

Zoological News.— Mr. O. F. Cook has published a monograph
of Scytonotus. He considers this genus to be the most specialized of
the Polydesmid Myriapoda, basing his conclusion on its secondary
sexual characters. He recognizes nine species as belonging to the
genus. (Ann. New York, Acad. Sci., VIII).

A gigantic Cephalopod, supposed to be a new species of Architeuthis,
was driven inshore on the eastern side of the bay of Tokyo. A descrip-
tion of it, illustrated with di i vings, is published by K. Mitsukuri and
S. Ikeda. It is characterized by shape of its fins and of its beaks, the
unequal lengths of the sessile arms, and other minor details. (Zool.
Mag., Vol. VII, 1895).

Prof. Gegeubaur has i aes Jahrbuch for the year

1895, instituted a study of the clavicle and the elements adjacent to it
and the scapular arch. He calls attention to the fact that there are
two elements in the position of the former in Dipnoi, Crosopterygia
and Chondrostei. He then shows that the element nearest the scapula
is retained in some of the Stegocephalia, while the anterior and distal
element is increased in length. He calls the former the cleithrum, and
retains for the latter the name clavicle. The clavicle only remains in
the existing order of Batrachia, and higher groups, while the cleithrum
only remains in the higher fishes, beginning with Lepidosteus and

According to Dr. Delisle the cranial capacity of the Orang-Outang
averages 408 cubic centimeters. (L'Anthropologie Tome, VI, 1895.)

Ranke's researches show that the weight of the human brain is much
greater in proportion to the weight of the spinal cord than in any other
vertebrate. (Correspondenzblatte).

Dr. E. Rosenberg publishes in the Morphologisches Jahrbuch for 1895,
an investigation into the reduction of the number of the incisor teeth
which is seen in the human species. He shows : first, that the loss of

1896.] Entomology. 333

the external incisor, which was first pointed out by Cope, ami which
has been observed independently by several others, is frequently
observed in Europe as well as in America ; second, that the loss of the
first inferior incisor is also not very uncommon in Europe and that the
final reduction of the inferior incisors, shciihl it lake [.lace, will be by the
loss of this tooth and not by that of the external incisor as in the supe-
rior series. He, therefore, believes that the ultimate formula of the
incisive dentition in man will be I{, and not I*, as Cope left it.

ENTOMOLOGY.1

The Segmental Sclerites of Spirobolus.— The structure of
the segments of Diplopoda has long been a morphological puzzle. On
account of the possession of two pairs of legs they have in a general
way been supposed to be double segments, that is, formed by the coal-
escence of two distinct embryonic or theoretical segments. Toward a
morphological demonstration of this idea there has been little progress.
Indeed, there are many facts which give grounds of suspicion as to its
correctness. Among these may be noticed that the double footed state
does not occur in the embryo at all, and that the segments which in
the adult bear two pairs of legs either do not exist in the newly hatched
larva or do not bear any legs at that stage, the newly hatched diplopod
larva having but three pairs of legs, the posterior of which is attached
to the fourth segment (at least in the Polydesmoidea). Moreover, all
Diplopoda have apodous segments not differing otherwise from those
which bear legs; also all Diplopoda have segments which bear but one
pair of legs, and yet have not been found to be greatly different from the
others. Growing Diplopoda acquire segments by intercalation in front
of the last. The segment is added at one moult, the legs for it at the
next. As the possession of two pairs of legs has been the occasion of
the theories of duplex segments, these facts are the more relevant as
objections, since more difficulties are introduced than are disposed of
by the theories.

The existence of plurrc in the Oniscomorpha has long been known,
and for a less period in the Coloboguatha and Limacomorpha. In the
other orders these elements of the segmental ring are so thoroughly
coalesced or eliminated that their existence was theoretical until their

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

334 The American Naturalist. [April,

discovory in Steramatoiulus. In that form, however, the multiplicity
of peculiar characters weakens the application of homologies to the
other orders, unless these can be based on structural facts. It is thus a
matter of interest that the existence of pleurae in another Diplopod
order can be affirmed.

Some weeks since in exu >pir<>holid;c I noticed

what seemed to be traces of pleural sutures. On mentioning this fact
to Mr. F. C. Straub who was studying with me, he called my attention
to a specimen of Spirobolus marginatus Say which proved to be very
remarkable. Possibly it was collected just after moulting, before the
sclerites had become coalesced, or it may have been merely an individ-
ual anomaly. At any rate, it had on each side an obliquely longitudi-
nal white line across each segment above the pedigerous lamina,
indicating a pleural element about as broad as the lamina. That this
is the pleural suture seems very probable, on theoretical grounds and
more so that on the surface a special strife followed the line of white.

What is more remarkable, this line was met above by two others
which were transverse, dividing the segment into three subequal part*.
These two lines extended completely over the animal, the space between
them being somewhat greater above. There is also a median longitu-
dinal suture, and a lateral just below the pore, thus dividing the dorsal
portion of the ring into twelve subequal parts. The posterior of the
transverse sutures follows the depression found in the segments of Spi-
roboli and usually called " the suture" in descriptions. The anterior
line and the median line are indicated by minute differences in the
sculpture, which would not have been noticed had not the white line
drawn attention to them. It should be added that the lighter color
was not due to anything inside or outside the segmental wall, but was
in the wall itself and clearly indicated some structural difference. The
phenomenon was exhibited by the anterior and middle segments of the
body, becoming indistinct caudad. In all cases the pattern was the
same; the whole series of lines could be made out on many segments,
and there were no other similar lines or discolorations. The lines were
not straight if examined uiidm- a microscope, even the median sli.iwing
minute irregularities. Median sutures are known in four or five of the
Diplopod orders and hence may reasonably be expected in all.

Had only the median line been marked as related, there would have
been no hesitation in supposing that a median suture yjas indicated.
Theoretical considerations only stand in the way of the reasonable
presumption that the other exactly limilar linei indicate sutures. If
such an interpretation is allowed we are brought to the position that

the segmental ring of Spirobolus consists? of sixteen selerites; twelve
dorsal, two pleural and two ventral or pedigerous laminae. It will be
seen that only the last tend to indicate a transverse division of the
sei_MiH -in. and in no Diplopod as yet has there been shown a transverse
suture carried around the segment and dividing it into two parts.
Only the legs and the parts necessarily connected with them, such as
the pedigerous lamina? and nerve ganglia are duplicated. Even in the
Oniscomorpha, Limaeomorpha and Colobognatha where the pleura' are
mo<t distinct, there is not the slightest indication that they were ever
divided, and as they are the elements to which the pedigerous laminae
are next related, their evidence is more important than any drawn
from the dorsal parts of the segment.

There is another way. however, in which a diplopodous animal might
be developed from a monopodous ancestor. Alternate segments may-
have been suppressed, while the corresponding legs have been pre-
served. For such a supposition we have the analogy of the Chilopoda,
where the pedigerous segments alternate with more or less rudimentary
segments. In this case, however, the legs have been lost, that is, we
must suppose so if we claim the analogy. Such a theory, while no
more fantastic than the other, is probably no nearer the truth. After
theoretical explanations have been exhausted we may. perhap-. learn
that the double-footed condition is a peculiarity of this group of ani-
mals not explainable by any general morphological considerations, but
sui qeneris, after the manner of the branched segmental appendages of
the Crustacea. — O. F.Cook.

Secretion of Potassium Hydroxide.— Mr. O. H. Lalter has

that the imagines of eight species secrete from the mouth an alkaline
fluid on emerging from the pupa. The three species of Dicntnuw
wear what is railed a shield, derived from the pupa ease as they emerge,
and thev Mih-«M,u,-iitIy remove it by their legs. He finds that the
strength of the solution in D. rinnla is about 1.4 grm. of potassium
hydroxide in every 100 ccm. of liquid. The mesenteron of the same
species develops an anterior dorsal diverticulum for storage of the
alkali during pupal life.— Journal Royal Mic. Society.

Lake Superior Coleoptera.—
an admirable list of Coleoptera from

i Tram Ent. Soc. Lond.. 1895, 399-312

3Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. >. ien, > .

rior. More than 200 species are enumerated in this list which have
not before been credited to the region of the Lake. The collections
were made at Bayfield, Wisconsin, during June and July.

The following introductory remarks are of sufficient general interest
to be quoted at some length. The time for an accurate map of the
faunal regions of the continent has not yet come — nor will it before
another century at least of careful investigation has enabled us to fix
approximately the range of the rarer forms of insect life. It is evident
to any one who will read with care and with some understanding of the
general principles of distribution, that many of the recent theories as to
t he division of our country into " life-zones " have very little foundation
in fact. If better proof were wanting of this, we might point to that
of authors changing from year to year their arbitrary arrangement of
our zoo-geographical regions— uniting to-day two or three of those of
older authors, and separating them again a few months later on. All
this may or may not be progress, but it will all have to be gone over
again in the light of a wider knowledge than seems to be at present in
the possession of certain writers who cannot rest without having first
shown us that all previously conceived ideas are totally wrow, and
that their explanation of the distribution of life is the only plausible
one. A single group of animals may or may not indicate in a general
way the lines of distribution followed by a larger number — but it is
manifestly unreasonable to hope for a stable method of division of a
country into life-zones before the life of that country is well-known.

EMBRYOLOGY.1
The Effect of Lithiumchloride upon the Development of
the Frog and Toad egg (R. fusca and Bufo vulgaris.)2— The
results of the series of experiments performed in the histological labora-
tory at Munich with this salt seem of no little interest, and especially is
this the case with the result obtained with a 0-5 per cent solution. In
-every instance the eggs were placed in the solutions (varying from 1
per cent to 0"2 per cent) between a half and an hour and a half after

1896.] Embryology. 337

The blastula obtained with the 5% solution the author attempts, with
some degree of plausibility, to make out to be of far reaching morpho-
logical importance. Whereas in all other cases development was either
more or less hindered or was abnormal, in this c;ise it was entirely sym-
metrical. The first indication of gastrulation appeared as a rim: sinking
about the equatorial plane and embracing the entire circumference. Sec-
tions showed a large mass of what the author calls passive yolk cells or
endoderm forming the lower half, while the upper half, composed of a
layer of ectoderm and one of active endoderm, forms a sort of cap
covering it.

and, as the author points out, forms a gastrula that, if the passive yolk
be removed, very closely resembles tin tt*. From this

it may seem more or less probable that ,r Lrastrnia

may have been radially symmetrical, and that bilateral symmetry
appeared later. Further it appears that the upper or large invagina-
tion of the amphibian e-u is not the blastopore, but this is represented
by the entire circle including the yolk plug.

It may be noted also, that if instead of supposing the passive ento-
derm to be removed, it be supposed to be greatly increased, one then
has a gastrula of the Btteroblastic type.

Another point of interest is the manner in which the cells of the so-
called " active endoderm," or those bordering the equatorial ring, pro-
liferate. This proliferation according to the author has already begun
when the in -urfaee commences ; so tha:

there being a pushing in of the outer surface, as the process is usually
described, there seems to be a pulling in. Whether this process is due
to the"cytotro])ismv described i.y Rouxfor the cellsof the dividing frog
egg, or to the taking up of the space occupied by the absorbed contents
of the blastula cavity, a- described by Hatschek tor Am/>hio.r)is, is not

The embryos obtained differ from those obtained by O. Hertwig with
NaCl, in that the brain capsule does not close up and the dying away of
the brain matter does not take place, and again instead of the animal
cells breaking down as in NaCl, it is the yolk cells that crumble away.

Finally one abnormal lithium chloride embryo has an adverse sig-
nificance for the concrescence theory.

It is to be hoped that the author st a more ex-

tensive paper, which shall he more fully illustrated.— F. C. K.

ANTHROPOLOGY.1

An Inquiry into the Origin of Games. — An examination of
the games of the Far East (Korea, China and Japan) and a compari-
son of them with certain games of the North American Indians us ex-
plained hy Mr. F. H. Gushing. has induced Mr. Culin (Korean Games,
with Notes on the Corresponding Games of China and Japan, by Stewart
Culin, Director of the Museum of Archeology and Paleontology of the
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1895) to believe that the
true game in the American and Asiatic region referred to, is a trace-
able descendant of primitive religious divinatory formulae, reaching
back to a time in the process of human development, when man freshly
inspired by the phenomena of earth an sky, symbolized in his cere-
monies the directions of the four winds, and foretold fate or fortune
with arrows.

Because American Indians divine by arrows, because archery, and
sets of arrows corresponding in number to Asiatic cosmic divisions, arrow
derived grave posts, and guild tallies notched and named like arrows,
still survive in Korea, and because arrow like rods are still used there
in divinatory formula? by fortune tellers, Mr. Culin has been led to
regard arrow divination as a primitive and original form of fortune
telling, and while the totemic arrow marks on short round gambling

supposed to have been derived (traceably perhaps through an intermediate set
marked with colored ribbons) from arrow -iiat'iin.-nts such as were used by the
McCloud River Indians.

sticks of northwest coast Indans are urged as indications of the arrow
ancestry of the latter, the same interesting suggestion is made as to the
cylindrical earthen stamps from Ecquador and the round and flat en-
graved cylinders from Babylonia. Twenty-three out of the ninety-
seven Korean games described (though in many cases the clue is not
1 This department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna , Phila.

origin of

— the world, with the quarters <
and the earth beneath," where t\
red or distributed, symbolized th
first soothsayer'
The investigi

-^

often upon the impartial testii
lead hnmanity backward in I
flight of birds, the observed
plants or minerals,

jcromancer. The Ko

ing of r

Orientals in Asia depending

f animals, or the virtues of
of Xyout, where the throw-

?$>&

Sx^

«L_

O ft

^f

m :

; — }

tdg

:~

their notched j

suites, and figures in the game that seem to connect
t with chess, ami with dice and backgammon and other Korean dice
,nd board games, thus, we are told, putting the latter familiar and

cards, resembling a set of Chinese lottery arrows similarly marked,

1896.] Anthropology. 341

and with arrow feather- painted on their backs refer us strikingly
to the arrow, and this fact. illustrated "v a series of surprising pic-
tures is one of the telling features of Mr." Culm's book. Whether we
agree or not, whether we prefer to wait till more evidence is in
for regions like parts of Australia, Tasmania and the Andaman
[sland< where man appears never to have had arrows, and whether
we believe that we have reason to doubt that the notion of the
four world quarters ever was universally impressed upon humanity
the original suggestions of Mr. Culin pointing out new and seemingly
widespread relations among games and tracing m- seeking to trace in
them fresh illustration for the story of human development, is of
importance and interest.

Following further the author's dignified and always sympathetic
pn-mtation of the subject into a description of other games which
sometimes, like the counting out rhymes of children, are regarded
as less conscious survivals of the diviners' doings, sometimes as
mere festive or athletic pastimes, we gather pleasing evidence of
the world kinship of children in the record (often illustrated by
Dative Korean artists in color), of blind man's buff, leap frog, horse
stick, tug of war, stone fighting, pop guns, tops, tilt ups, and jack
stones. Too briefly the pages reflecting remembered joys of youth tell
of the loosened waters of a brook breaking, if they can, a juvenile dam,
of hostile kites sawing their abraisive strings as they soar, of violet
whipping, of shovel playing, of youthful mouths crammed with cher-
ries, to be eaten without swallowing the stones, and of dragon flies,
caught in spider webbed hoops by children reciting poems and released
with unconscious cruelty when impaled with paper banners. But new
aspects of an ever present floral sympathy in the land of cherry blos-
soms and the chrysanthemum are revealed to us when we learn of such
Japanese names for bands of combatants as " spring willow blossom,"
" summer rest forest," and " autumn garden," shouted across the green
turf in the foot ball game.

Notwithstanding the similarities urged between some of the arrow
games of Xorth America and their Asiatic representatives we look in
vain in the book for suggestion of contact of races, or proof of migra-
tion. Lines of investigation such as other observers might choose in
tracing the rolling of stone discs sored in motion with sticks or arrows
{Chungb>) from the Sandwich Islands to Georgia, the author eschews
as unfruitful and inconclusive " unless supported by linguistic evi-
dence." His valuable and original investigation has not essayed to
furnish new light as to the geographical origin of the human race but
has rather multiplied the evidence showing that man's mind has
worked alike everywhere.— H. C. Mercer.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Prof. Mark Baldwin on Preformation and Epigenesis.
— In the last number of the Naturalist was republished from Science,
Prof. Baldwin's observations on my presentation of the contrasted hy-
potheses of the development of mind.1 One of these theories was sup-
posed to be in accordance with the evolutionary doctrine of preforma-
tion, the other was thought to bear the same relation to that of epigene-
sis. Prof. Baldwin asks why the three theses arranged under epigenesis
may not with equal or greater propriety be arranged in the preforma-
tion column. He believes that consciousness has had an influence in
directing the course of evolution in accordance with the "general law
now recognized by Psychologists under the name of Dynamogenesis—
i. e., that the thought of a movement tends to discharge motor energy
into the channels as near as may be to those necessary for that move-
ment." He also says, " I do not suppose that any naturalist would
hold to an injection of energy in any form into the natural processes
by consciousness. The psychologists are, as Mr. Cattell remarks, about
done with a view like that." Prof. Baldwin also remarks that " Prof.
Cope can say whether such a construction ia true in his case." He adds
that " it is only the physical basis of memory in the brain that has a
causal relation to the other organic processes of the animal."

To reply to the last question first. The facts seem to show that con-
scious states do have " a causal relation to the other organic processes
of the animal." I have gone into this subject briefly, but more fully
than can be done here, in Chap. X of my book on the " Primary Fac-
tors of Organic Evolution " (1896). The evolution of the brain, the
organ of consciousness, would indicate this, as well as the evidence for
Kinetogenesis or evolution by motion. This would follow, if the doc-
trine of Dynamogenesis referred to by Prof. Baldwin be true, at the
psychic end of the process, and if acquired characters be inherited, as
required by the doctrine of epigenesis If then consciousness has such a
function, the question arises as to its immediate mode of action. Prof.
Baldwin says "only the physical basis of memory has a causal rela-
tion," etc. This proposition I can accept, and it is true whether that
physical basis be due to a conscious state called a sense-impression, or
not. But the directions of the acts (motions) which flow from that
physical basis are very various in organic beings, having adaptations
1 See Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, 1896, p. 14.

1896.] Psychology. 848

to as many ends as there are benefits to l.e obtained. It is evident that
the physical basis of memory undergoes a change from the condition
in which it is first produced. Its component parts are evidently rear-
ranged in accordance with some purely psychic factors, i. e., in aeeoid-
ance with qualities and properties which are only appreciable by con-
scious states. One may suppose that a reflection of the physical bftsu
of a memory may 1
that in o
fication, i

In other words, the
structure of the physi

duction of it. These representative functions may be of the s
— i.e., they may consist only of criteria of size, color, utility, etc., or
they may be more complex, involving judgments, concepts, etc.
Finally, no criteria can violate the ultimate " forms of thought,"
which are essentials of all representative mental action. These, in
short, are the fundamental reasons why mental conditions may he be-
lieved to direct the course of energy, without increasing the amount of
that energy.

The relation of this factor of evolution to the the theories of Prefor-

lieve that the process of mental evolution has been and is at bottom epi-
genetic, is because there is no way short of supernatural revelation by
which mental education can be accomplished other than by contact
with the environment through sense impressions, and by transmission
of the results to subsequent generations. The opinion is amply a con-
sistent application to brain tissue of a doctrine supposed to be true oi
the other organic structures. The injection of consciousness into the
process does not alter the case, but adds a factor which necessitates the
progressive character of evolution.

I do not perceive how promiscuous variation and natural selection
alone can result in progressive psychic evolution, more than in struc-
tural evolution, since the former is conditioned by the latter. The ob-
jections to this mode of accounting for progressive structural evolution
are well known, and are enumerated in my book on page 474. It is
true, no doubt, that as we rise in the scale of mental faculty the capa-
city for acquisition increases. How far these acquisitions are in in-
heritable is a question of detail, but no one denies, so far as I am
aware, excepting consistent preformationists, that they are more or less
inheritable. It is to be supposed that the longer special aptitudes art
cultivated the more likely they are to be inherited, precisely as the ef

344 The American Xatuntllst.

fects of constant use of an organism are inherited, while sports and
mutilations are not inherited. The importance, of the social influences
among men on which Prof. Baldwin justly lays so much stress, consists
in the fact that they are continuous in their operation, and produce
permanent habits. This accounts for the phenomena referred to by
him when he remarks that " the level of culture in a community seems
to be about as fixed a thing as moral qualities are capable of being ;
much more so than the level of individual endowment, This latter
seems to be capricious or variable, while the former moves by a regu-
lar movement and with a massive front." Here we have portrayed
exactly what occurs in structural evolution. The habitual influence of
the environment, internal and external, conditions the steady advance,
while sports produce only temporary effects or are effective only in
proportion to their ratio to the entire movement.

In an essay published in Science of March 20th, 1896, Prof. Bald-
win comments on the lectures of Prof. Lloyd Morgan, in support of
his own doctrine of Social Heredity. This is the name he has applied
to this transmission of habits through their persistence in societies, so
that the young acquire them through imitation or instruction, without
the intervention of physical heredity. As a foundation for this view
he disputes the necessity of any inheritance of acquired habits by the
inheritance of the nervous mechanism which they express, and denies
therefore that use is a necessary agent in the evolution of such habits.
In order to prove that instincts are not " lapsed intelligence " he says ;
" The intelligence can never by any possibility create a new movement
or effect a new combination of movements, if the apparatus of brain,
nerve and muscles has not been made ready for the combination which
is effected. This point is no longer in dispute," etc. Immediately
before this, however, he says. "But let us ask how the intelli-
gence, brings about coordinations of muscular movement. The phys-
chologist is obliged to reply ; " Only by a process of selection (through
pleasure, pain, experience, association, etc.,) from certain alternative

It is granted in the last quotation that pleasure, pain and other
conscious states, select the motions which become habits. Such selec-
tion is intelligent, and such act is an expression of intelligence, though
of the simplest sort. All that Prof. Baldwin alleges is that intelli-
gence is impotent to construct the mechanism of new habits out of
mechanisms already too far specialized in definite directions to permit
such a reorganization of structure. This truth in nowise

1896.] Psychology. 345

the construction of the mechanism of new habits from tissues capable
of reconstruction or of modification, a quality which resides very
probably in brain tissue, or at least certainly has resided in it at various
stages of organic evolution, when new "selections through pleasure,
pain, experience, association, etc.," were made ; otherwise the selection
would have been impossible. This is the history of all the other tissues,
and why not of brain tissue? Though Prof. Baldwin denies the neces-
sity of the Lamarckian Factor, he admits it in this doctrine of selec-
tion ; and his denial of inheritance, only covers the case of physcho-
logical sports, as above pointed out. Hence he both admits and
denies both Lamarckian and Weismannism.

Weismannism has recently struck the physchological camp, and in
Prof. Baldwin and in Mr. Benjamin Kidd, we see some of its recent
effects. But since the biologists have generally repudiated Weismann-
ism, the evolutionary physchologists must try and get along withdul it.
Nevertheless, as above remarked, Prof. Baldwin's " Social Heredity "
is a real factor, especially in human evolution ; but as it is not heredity,.
I think it should have a new name, which shall, be less confusing.
E. D. Cope.

Psychologic Data Wanted. — For purpose of extended compar-
ison I wish data as to habit, instinct or intelligence in animals, above
all, minor and trifling ones not in the books, useless or detrimental ones,
and the particular breed, species or genus showing each. Purring,
licking, washing face, kneading objects with fore-paws, humping back,
and "worrying" captured prey (like the cat), baying (at moon or
otherwise) ; urination and defecation habits (eating, covering up, etc.) ;
disposition of feces and shells in nest; rolling on carrion ; cackling (or
other disturbance) after laying; eating " afterbirth " or young; sexual
habits ; transporting eggs or young ; nest-sharing ; hunting partner-
ships or sin; amission of
8 ; rearing young of other species with resulting modification
of instinct ; feigning death ; suicide ; " fascination ; " are examples.
Circular of information will be sent and full credit given for data used,
or sender's name will be confidential, as preferred.

Answer as fully as possible, always stating age, sex, place, date («r
season), species, breed, and whether personally observed.

R. R. GuftLEY, M. D.

Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science..— March 9th.— The follow-
ing paper was read: "Some Illustrations of Dynamical Geology in.
Southwestern Nova Scotia," by L. W. Bailey, Esq., M. A., Ph. D.

Harry Piers, Secretary.

Boston Society of Natural History.— February 19th— The
f illowitig [tapers were read: Mr. Outram Bangs :" The Terrapin an
Inhabitant of Massachusetts." Dr. Joseph Lincoln Goodale: "The
Vocal Sounds of Animals and the Mechanism of their Production."

March 4th.— The following paper was read : Prof. F. W. Putnam :
" Symbolism in Ancient America.". — Samuel Henshaw, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences — Biological Section. —
February 7th, 1896.— Dr. J. G. Curtis in the Chair.

A communication from the Council was received asking that the
Section take action on Rep. Hurley's bill " To fix the standard of
Weights and Measures by the adoption of the metric system of weights

On motion of Dr. Dean, the Section approved the bill and the Sec-
retary was directed to express the entire commendation of it to the
Council.

Dr. Arnold Graf read a paper on " The Structure of the Nephridia
in Clepsine." He finds, in the cells of the intra cellular duct, fine
cytoplasmic anastamosing threads which form a contractile mechan-
ism. These are stimulated by granules which are most numerous near
the lumen of the cell, and thus a peristalsis is set up which moves the
urine out of the duct. In the upper part of the intra-cellular duct, the
two or three cells next to the vesicle or funnel have no distinct lumen,
but are vacuolated ; the vacuoles of the first cell being small, those of
the second larger, and so on, till the vacuoles become permanent as a
lumen. He explains the action of the first cell as being similar to the
ingestion of particles by the infusorians. The matter taken up thus
from the funnel by the first cell is carried by the rest, and so on till the
cells having a lumen are reached. The presence of the excretum
causes the granules to stimulate the muscular fibres of the cells; pen-
stalis results and the substance is carried outwards. The character of
this contractile reticulum offers an explanation of the structure of a
l of a contractile reticular thread.

1396.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 347

N. R. Harrington, in " Observations on the Lime Gland of the
Earthworm," described the minute structure of these glands in L.
terrestris, and showed that the lime is taken up from the blood by
wandering connective tissue cells which form club-shaped projections
on the lamellae of the gland, and which pass off when filled with lime.
The new cell comes up from the base of the older cell and repeats the
process. This explanation is in harmony with the fact that in all other
invertebrates lime is laid down by connective tissue cells. Histological
structure and the developmental history confirm it.

Dr. Bashford Dean offered some observations on " Instinct in some
of the Lower Vertebrates." The young of Amia calva, the dogfish of
the Western States, attach themselves, when newly hatched, to the
water plants at the bottom of the nest which the male Amia has built.
They remain thus attached until the yolk sac is absorbed. As soon as
they are fitted to get food they flock together in a dense cluster, follow-
ing the male. When hatched in an aquarium they go through the
same processes. The young fry take food particles only when the par-
ticles are in motion, never when they are still. The larva of Necturus
also take food particles that are in motion.— C. L. Bristol, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society. — January 17th. — Prof. Hil-
precht presented a paper on " Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly
from Nippur," Pt. ii.

February 21st.— Prof, A. W. Goodspeed read a paper on the Ront-
gen method, with demonstration. Remarks were made by Prof. Hous-
ton, J. F. Sachse, Prof. Robb of Trinity College, and Prof. Trowbridge
of Cambridge.

March 6th.— The following paper was presented: "Eucalypti in
Algeria and Tunisia from an Hygienic and Climatological Point of
View," by Dr. Edward Pepper.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia— Anthropo-
logical Section.— February 14th.— The following papers were read :
Dr. Allen on " Prenasal Fossae of the Skull ; " Dr. Brinton on " Hu-
man Hybridism ; " Dr. McClellan, Skulls and Photographs exhibited.
Chas. Morris, Recorder.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.— February 17, 1896.
—Dr. Adolf Alt spoke of the anatomy of the eye, and, by aid of the
projecting microscope exhibited a series of axial sections representing
the general structure of the eye in thirty-one species of animals, com-
prising two crustaceans, the squid, three fish, two batrachians, two rep-
tiles, ten birds, and eleven mammals.

2 he American Naturalist.

[April,

Professor F. E. Nipher gave an account of the Geissler and Crookes
tubes and the radiant phenomena exhibited by each when used in
connection with a high-tension electrical current of rapid alternation,
and detailed the recent discoveries of Professor Rontgen, showing that
certain of the rays so generated are capable of affecting the sensitized
photographic plate through objects opaque to luminous rays. Atten-
tion was also called to the experiments of Herz and Lodge with dis-
charges of very high tension alternating currents, which showed that
by the latter certain invisible rays are produced, which, like the Ront-
gen rays, are capable of passing through opaque bodies, such as pitch,
but differing in their refrangibility by such media.

March 2d.— Mr. F. W. Duenckel presented a comparison of the
records of the United States Meteorological Observatory, located on the
Government building in the city, with the record for the Forest Park
station, showing that the daily minimum averaged decidedly lower at
the Forest Park station than in the city, while the wind averaged de-
cidedly higher for the city station.

Professor E. E. Engler spoke on the summation of certain series of
numbers.— William Trelease, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

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Vol. XXX. MAY, 1896. No. 353

CONTENTS.

The Probable Influence of Disturbed Nutri-

. *eis«* and -Leopard Rock' of Ontario-Pet™*

Phase of the Sporophyte.

Progress in American Ornithology. 1886-1895.

•.■■■-.■ '• - ;' ..• -. \ ■■_■

The Path of the Water Current in- Cucum-

ber Plants. (To be continued).

-

ool Botanv— Popular

, _

Editor's Table.— The Destruction of the Seal

oidea . . 406

Herd— Ci M Mu-

-

seum— I Sew Com-

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New Jen ,1 VI,

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taina in

41::

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about Br; : North

. . 42»

-

ETB. . '.'.'.'. 390

as.

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